Cultural Patterns

1.

CULTURAL PATTERNS

2.

GEERT HOFSTEDE’S CULTURAL PATTERNS
Culture’s
Consequences:
Comparing Values,
Behaviors,
Institutions, and
Organizations Across
Nations (2001)

3.

In the edition Culture’s Consequences:
Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions,
and Organizations Across Nations (2001):
In the edition of Cultures and Organizations:
Software of the Mind (2010) G. Hofstede
devised a new dimension:

4.

5.

POWER DISTANCE: BEING MODERN IS
BEING EQUAL
One of the basic concerns in all
cultures is the issue of human
inequality. Cultures with low power
distance index (PDI) prefer small
power distances as a cultural value,
they believe in the importance of
minimizing social or class inequalities,
reducing hierarchical organizational
structures, and using power only for
legitimate purposes.
Cultures with relatively high PDI
prefer large power distances. They
believe in a social order in which each
person has a rightful and protected
place. They also believe that the
actions of authorities should not be
challenged or questioned. They think
that hierarchy and inequality are
appropriate and beneficial, and those
with social status have a right to use
their power for whatever purposes and
in whatever ways they want.

6.

KEY DIFFERENCE IN PDI CULTURES
(FAMILY AND SCHOOL)
LOW PDI
HIGH PDI
Parents treat children as equals.
Children treat parents
relatives as equals.
and older
Students treat teachers as equals.
from
Teachers are experts who transfer
impersonal truth.
Quality of learning depends on twoway communication and excellence of
students.
Teachers expect
students in class.
initiative
Parents teach children obedience.
Respect for parents and older relatives
is a basic and lifelong virtue.
Students give teachers respect, even
outside of class.
Teachers should take all initiative in
class.
Teachers are gurus
personal wisdom.
who
transfer
Quality of learning
excellence of teacher.
depends
on

7.

KEY DIFFERENCE IN PDI CULTURES
(WORKPLACE)
LOW PDI
HIGH PDI
Decentralization is popular.
Centralization is popular.
There are fewer supervisory
personnel.
There are more supervisory personnel.
There is a narrow salary range
between the top and bottom of the
organization.
Subordinates expect to be consulted.
The ideal boss is a resourceful
democrat.
Subordinate-superior relations are
pragmatic.
Privileges and status symbols are
frowned upon.
Manual work has the same status as
office work.
There is a wide salary range between
the top and bottom of the
organization.
Subordinates expect to be told what to
do.
The ideal boss is a benevolent
autocrat, or ‘good father’.
Subordinate-superior relations are
emotional.
Privileges and status symbols are
normal and popular.
White-collar jobs are valued more than
blue-collar jobs.

8.

KEY DIFFERENCE IN PDI CULTURES
(STATE)
LOW PDI
The use of power should be legitimate and
follow criteria of good and evil.
Mostly wealthier countries with a large
middle class.
All should have equal rights.
The way to change a political system is by
changing the rules (evolution).
There is more dialogue and less violence in
domestic politics.
The political spectrum shows a strong center
and weak right and left wings.
There are small income differentials in
society, further reduced by the tax system.
There is less perceived corruption; scandals
end political careers.
HIGH PDI
Might prevails over right: whoever holds the
power is right and good.
Mostly poorer countries with a small middle
class.
The powerful should have privileges.
The way to change a political system is by
changing the people at the top (revolution).
There is less dialogue and more violence in
domestic politics.
The political spectrum, if allowed to exist,
has a weak center and strong right and left
wings.
There are large income differentials in
society, further increased by the tax system.
There is more perceived corruption; scandals
are usually covered up.

9.

COUNTRIES
scoring low on the power distance
index include:
scoring high on the power distance
index include:
Austria
Malaysia
Israel
Slovakia
Denmark
Guatemala
New Zealand
Panama
Germany
Philippines
Switzerland
Russia

10.

UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE: BEING
MODERN IS BEING FLEXIBLE
This dimension describes the extent to which
the culture feels threatened by ambiguous,
uncertain situations and tries to avoid them
by establishing more structure.
Cultures with low UAI have a high tolerance
for uncertainty and believe in minimizing
the number of rules and rituals that govern
social conduct and human behavior. These
cultures are tolerant to people who behave in
ways that are considered socially deviant,
who take risks and try new things. Low-UAI
cultures prefer to resolve disputes by
negotiation or conflict.
Cultures with high UAI prefer to avoid
uncertainty, they demand consensus about
societal goals and do not tolerate deviation in
the behaviors of cultural members. These
cultures usually try to ensure certainty and
security through an extensive set of rules
and regulations. Historically, these cultures
tend to have an extensive system of laws and
rules with which to resolve disputes.

11.

KEY DIFFERENCES IN UAI CULTURES
LOW UAI
HIGH UAI
Low level of anxiety/ uneasiness.
Fewer formal and informal governing structures.
Life is not perceived as being inherently
stressful.
Fewer health and wealth complaints.
In educational and family settings, children may
receive the impression that the world is benign,
that their teachers or elders may not have all the
answers, and they are taught in a lessstructured, open-ended manner.
To change jobs is not problematic and stressful.
Citizens tend to be politically engaged.
Cultures are generally less religiously ritualistic
and fundamentalist, and are less likely to
persecute others for divergent beliefs. Protestant,
Buddhist, Taoist, and Hindu cultures are
typically rank low on the UAI.
High level of tension/ anxiety.
The desire for and implementation of both formal
and informal governing structures like laws
(formal) or dinner etiquette (informal).
Life is perceived as being stressful, and open
displays of emotions are acceptable.
More health and wealth complaints.
In educational and family settings, children may
receive the impression that the world is hectic,
that their teachers or elders have all the
answers, and they are taught in a structured
manner.
People prefer not to change job, even if they do
not like it.
Citizens tend to be politically disengaged.
Cultures are generally more ritualized and
fundamentalist religiously. Catholic, Islamic,
and Jewish cultures typically rank high on the
UAI.

12.

COUNTRIES
scoring low on the
uncertainty index include:
scoring high on the
uncertainty index include:
Singapore
Greece
the United States
Belgium
the United Kingdom
Russia
India
Italy
China
Korea
Indonesia
Mexico

13.

INDIVIDUALISM: BEING MODERN IS BEING
INDIVIDUALISTIC
This dimension describes people’s
relationships to the larger social
groups of which they are a part.
In
collectivistic
cultures
the
collectivity’s goals are valued over
those of the individual. The
individual mainly thinks of himself
or herself as connected to others. To
be independent in one’s thinking or
actions is considered selfish and
rude. An individual who is not a
good team player is punished for
breaking the norm of collectivism.
In individualistic cultures the
individual’s goals are valued over
those of the collectivity. The
individual perceives himself or
herself as independent. Being too
much dependent on others is
considered weak or unassertive.

14.

KEY DIFFERENCES IN INDIVIDUALISTIC/
COLLECTIVISTIC CULTURES
INDIVIDUALISTIC
"I" – consciousness: it promotes
individual goals, initiative and
achievement.
Individual rights are seen as being the
most important. Rules attempt to
ensure self-importance and
individualism.
Independence is valued; relying or
being dependent on others is
frequently seen as shameful.
People are encouraged to do things on
their own, to rely on themselves;
people strive for their own success.
COLLECTIVISTIC
“We" – consciousness: each person is
encouraged to be an active player in
society, to do what is best for society
as a whole rather than themselves.
The rights of families, communities,
and the collective supersede those of
the individual.
Rules promote unity, brotherhood, and
selflessness.
Working with others and cooperating
is the norm; everyone supports each
other.

15.

COUNTRIES
with generally individualistic
cultures
with generally collectivistic cultures
United States
Australia
United Kingdom
Canada
Netherlands
New Zealand
Italy
Belgium
Sweden
Ireland
Norway
Switzerland
Germany
South Africa
Finland
Luxembourg
Austria
Spain
Greece
China
India
Pakistan
Indonesia
Brazil
Korea
Portugal
Romania
Russia
Saudi Arabia
Serbia
Singapore
Turkey
Vietnam
African countries (Zambia, Kenya, Uganda,
Somalia, etc.)
Japan

16.

MASCULINITY: CAN FEMININE VALUES BE
MODERN AFTER ALL?
This dimension refers to the extent to which
cultures prefer achievement or social support. It
also indicates the degree to which a culture values
such behaviors as assertiveness and the
acquisition of wealth or caring for others and the
quality of life.
Relatively high masculine cultures believe in
achievement and ambition, in judging people on
the basis of their performance, and in the right to
display the material goods that have been
acquired. Masculine cultures are more likely to
confront conflicts directly and to competitively
fight out any differences; they are more likely to
emphasize win-lose conflict strategies.
Relatively high feminine cultures believe less in
external achievements and shows of manliness.
They believe more in the importance of life
choices, they value service to others and sympathy
for the unfortunate. They prefer equality between
the sexes, less prescriptive role behaviors
associated with each gender. Feminine cultures
are more inclined to compromise and negotiation
in resolving conflicts; they are more likely to
emphasize win-win solutions.

17.

KEY DIFFERENCES IN
MASCULINE/FEMININE CULTURES
FEMININE
MASCULINE
Social norms
Relationship oriented.
Quality of life and people are important.
Work in order to live.
Ego oriented.
Money and things are important.
Live in order to work.
Politics and economics
Environment protection high priority.
Conflict solved through negotiation.
Economic growth high priority.
Conflict solved through force.
Work
Smaller gender wage gap.
More women in management.
Preference for fewer working hours.
Family and school
Flexible family structure.
Both boys and girls cry; neither fight.
Failing is a minor accident.
Larger gender wage gap.
Fewer women in management.
Preference for higher pay.
Traditional family structure.
Girls cry, boys don’t; boys fight, girls
don’t.
Failing is a disaster.

18.

COUNTRIES
with high feminine
cultures
with high masculine
cultures
the Netherlands
Japan (highest scoring
Sweden
country in the world)
USA
UK
Italy
Austria
Mexico
Nigeria
Portugal
Iceland
Chili
Thailand
France
Spain

19.

LONG-TERM ORIENTATION: ACCOUNTING
FOR UNEXPECTED SUCCESS
Every society has to maintain
some links with its own past
while
dealing
with
the
challenges of the present and
the future.
Societies who score low on this
dimension, for example, prefer
to maintain time-honoured
traditions and norms while
viewing societal change with
suspicion.
Those with a culture which
scores high, on the other hand,
take
a
more
pragmatic
approach: they encourage thrift
and efforts in modern education
as a way to prepare for the
future.

20.

KEY DIFFERENCES IN TIME ORIENTATION
CULTURES
SHORT-TERM
ORIENTATION
LONG-TERM
ORIENTATION
Most important events
Most important events
in life occurred in the
past or take place now.
Personal steadiness and
stability: a good person
is always the same.
Traditions are sacred.
Service to others is an
important goal.
Social spending and
consumption.
in life will occur in the
future.
A good person adapts to
the circumstances.
Traditions are
adaptable to changed
circumstances.
Thrift is an important
goal.
Large savings, funds
available for
investment.

21.

COUNTRIES
with short-term
orientation
with long-term
orientation
Australia
China
New Zealand
Hong Kong
USA
Great Britain
Zimbabwe
Canada
Philippines
Nigeria
Pakistan
Taiwan
Japan
South Korea
Brazil

22.

INDULGENCE VS. RESTRAINT (IND)
This dimension is essentially a
measure of happiness; whether
or not simple joys are fulfilled.
Indulgence is defined as “a
society that allows relatively
free gratification of basic and
natural human desires related
to enjoying life and having fun.”
Its counterpart is defined as “a
society
that
controls
gratification of needs and
regulates it by means of strict
social norms.”
Indulgent
societies
believe
themselves to be in control of
their own life and emotions;
restrained societies believe
other factors dictate their life
and emotions.

23.

KEY DIFFERENCES IN IND CULTURES
Indulgent Societies
Higher percentage of people declaring
themselves very happy.
Freedom of speech seen as important.
Higher importance of leisure.
Restrained Societies
More likely to remember positive
emotions.
In countries with educated populations,
higher birthrates.
More people actively involved in sports.
In countries with enough food, higher
percentages of obese people.
In wealthy countries, lenient sexual
norms.
Maintaining order in the nation is not
given a high priority.
Fewer very happy people.
Freedom of speech is not a primary
concern.
Lower importance of leisure.
Less likely to remember positive
emotions.
In countries with educated
populations, lower birthrates.
Fewer people actively involved in
sports.
In countries with enough food, fewer
obese people.
In wealthy countries, stricter sexual
norms.
Higher number of police officers per
100,000 population.

24.

COUNTRIES/ REGIONS
Indulgence prevails in:
Restraint prevails in:
South America
Eastern Europe,
North America
Asia
Western Europe
the Muslim world
parts of Sub-Sahara
Africa

25.

E.T. HALL’S CULTURAL PATTERNS
Understanding
Cultural Differences
(1987)

26.

HIGH-CONTEXT VERSUS LOW-CONTEXT
CULTURES
Edward
T.
Hall
originated
the
classification of high-context versus lowcontext cultures, based on the amount of
information that is implied versus stated
directly in a communication message.
Context is understood as the information
that surrounds an event.

27.

HIGH-CONTEXT CULTURE
A high-context culture is one in which the meanings of a
communication message are found in the situation and in the
relationships of the communicators, or are internalized in the
communicators’ beliefs, values, and norms.
These cultures emphasize nonverbal communication and
subtleness in communication rather than being frank. Highcontext cultures are extremely polite. What is not said (an
unverbalized message) may be more important than what is said.
Members of high-context cultures believe that information does
not need to be explicitly stated for it to be understood. In the highcontext Japanese society, there is even an aphorism that
expressly addresses this issue: He who knows does not speak;
he who speaks does not know.

28.

HIGH-CONTEXT CULTURE
Hence, verbal communication is frequently not necessary and may well
impede the transmission of the message. Also, members of high-context
societies tend to have less physical space between them when
communicating than those in low-context societies. Besides, power
distance in these societies is well-defined. As Edward Hall notes, highcontext societies tend to require a strong leader to whom everyone else
expresses submission or at least great respect.
Criticism should only take place in private to enable the person to save
face. High-context cultures are reluctant to say "no" for fear of offending
and causing the person to lose face. For example, it’s necessary to
distinguish between the Japanese executive’s "yes" when it means "yes"
and when it means "no". The difference is not in the words used but in the
way in which they are used.

29.

LOW-CONTEXT CULTURE
A low-context culture is one in which the meanings of a communication
message are stated clearly and explicitly, without depending on the
context of the communication. Reactions are expressed frankly during a
conversation.
Verbal communication in a low-context culture leaves little to the
imagination. A concern for clarity is highly valued, while a concern for
hurting someone else’s feelings is not highly valued.
Conversations in a low-context culture are clear and to the point. Lowcontext cultures are individualistic cultures. They place less emphasis on
personal relationships and more emphasis on the written, explicit
explanation, and for example, on the written contracts in business
transactions.