COHESION

1. COHESION

2. COHESION

Cohesion in its broadest sense is “a semantic relation between an
element in a text and some other element that is crucial to the
interpretation of it” (Halliday and Hasan 1994). It is basically the glue
that holds a text together and makes the difference between an
unrelated set of sentences and a set of sentences forming a unified
whole.
Cohesion is the network of lexical, grammatical, and other relations
which link various parts of a text. These relations or ties organize and,
to some extent, create a text, for instance, by requiring the reader to
interpret words and expressions by reference to other words and
expressions in the surrounding sentences and paragraphs. Cohesion is
a surface relation, and it connects the actual words and expressions
that we can see or hear.

3. COHESION

Lexical cohesion
Grammatical cohesion
• direct repetition and rootrepetition;
• synonyms or near-synonyms;
• superordination;
• antonyms;
• ordered series;
• whole-part relations;
• semantic fields.
• reference (personal pronoun
reference, demonstrative
reference; comparative
reference);
• substitution;
• ellipsis;
• conjunctions and connectives.
Function:
Contributes to the topical
continuity of the text.
Function:
Contributes to the structural
continuity of the text.

4. LEXICAL COHESION

5. Lexical cohesion DIRECT and ROOT REPETITION

Repetition involves using the same word or phrase over and over again
within a piece of writing (or speech).
Root repetition involves repetition of the same morphological root in close
proximity within a text.
For ex.: poet – poetry – poetic
FUNCTIONS:
helps to emphasize/stress/highlight an important point or a thought;
makes a text easy to follow, contributes to its transparency;
repetition of terms in a scientific text contributes to its precision and helps to
avoid ambiguity;
helps to sustain the topic of the text.

6. Lexical cohesion SYNONYMS

A synonym is a word, morpheme, or phrase that means exactly or nearly
the same as another word, morpheme, or phrase in the same language.
FUNCTIONS:
create connectivity and semantic integrity;
For ex.: human language – natural language
help to avoid tedious and unnecessary repetition;
For ex.: property – prerequisite – aspect
in scientific texts may help the author to provide the reader with alternative
terms that are used to refer to the same object/phenomenon (or terminology
suggested by different scholars).
For ex.: poetic imagery – figurative language – figures of speech

7. Lexical cohesion SUPERORDINATION (HYPONYMY)

A hyponym is a word or phrase whose semantic range is included within that
of another word. For ex., "scarlet", "vermilion", "carmine", and "crimson" are all
hyponyms of "red" (their hyperonym), which is, in turn, a hyponym of "colour".
In other words, hyponyms are a set of related words whose meaning are
specific instances of a more general word. Other names for hyperonym include
umbrella term and blanket term.
FUNCTIONS:
• conveys the semantic relation of being subordinate or belonging to a lower
rank or class (hierarchy);
• helps to develop the topic;
• creates connectivity and semantic integrity.
For ex.: metaphor (hyperonym) – poetic metaphor, literary metaphor, basic
metaphor, conceptual metaphor (hyponyms).

8. Lexical cohesion ANTONYMS

Antonym is a word/word combination that means the opposite of
another word/word combination.
FUNCTIONS:
• show incompatibility between categories/phenomena;
• convey the idea of conflict and/or difference;
• highlight a contrast relation between items/thoughts.
For ex.:
modern – traditional
exclusive prerequisite – general ability

9. Lexical cohesion ORDERED SERIES

Ordered series are words that we know as a set/rigid series, for
example, the days of the week, months of the year or seasons. These
lexical items are associated with each other in the language.
FUNCTIONS:
• help to sustain the topic of the text;
• help to restore the chronological (or logical) order of
items/phenomena;
• contribute to connectivity and semantic integrity.

10. Lexical cohesion WHOLE-PART RELATIONS

The whole-part lexical relation is an association between a lexical unit
representing a part and a lexical unit representing its corresponding whole.
Another name for the whole-part lexical relation is meronymy. Meronymy may
be represented by the following frame:
Y has X(s). An X is a part of Y.
FUNCTIONS:
• convey the idea of belonging;
• serve to express strict partial ordering relations;
• structure the semantic space of the text in a hierarchical fashion.
For ex.:
language (whole) – term (part)
poetic language (whole) – poetic imagery (part)

11. Lexical cohesion SEMANTIC FIELDS

A semantic field is a lexical set of words grouped semantically (by meaning)
that refers to a specific subject/sphere. A semantic field denotes a segment of
reality symbolized by a set of related words. Words in a semantic field are all
used to talk about the same general phenomenon.
FUNCTIONS:
• enable the author to set and develop the topic of the text;
• help to specify the topic of the text and relate the text to a specific subject
matter/field of study etc.;
• ensure the semantic integrity of the text.
For ex.:
The semantic field (domain) of literature is represented by the following lexical
items: poetic imagery, poetry, poetic language, figurative language, poetic
metaphors, symbols, allegories, figures of speech, aesthetic effect, novel,
narrative prose, image of a character, literary metaphor.

12. GRAMMATICAL COHESION

13. Grammatical cohesion REFERENCE

The principle of reference within texts is exactly that: it tells the reader
that they can only make complete sense of the word or structure they
are looking at if they look elsewhere in the text to get a fuller picture.
TYPES OF REFERENCE:
• personal pronoun reference;
• demonstrative reference;
• comparative reference.

14. Grammatical cohesion PERSONAL PRONOUN REFERENCE

Pronoun reference is the practice of making pronouns refer clearly to the
words they replace. If the pronoun is referring back to something, this is called
anaphoric reference; if the pronoun is referring to something coming later, this
is called cataphoric reference.
Example 1
Imagery, understood as tantamount to poetic imagery, […]. Considered as an exclusive
attribute of poetic language, it is traditionally associated with what is called […].
The pronoun “it” refers backwards to the noun “imagery” thus forming an anaphoric
personal pronoun reference that contributes to the structural transparency of the text.
Example 2
The approach finds its reflection in some critics' view upon the nature of imagery in a
literary text: in his standard Dictionary of Literary Terms, J. A. Cuddon states that […].
A cataphoric pronoun reference observed in the text takes the form of the possessive
pronoun “his” which refers forward to the proper name “Cuddon”. It contributes to the
structural integrity of the text and serves as a means of clarification.

15. Grammatical cohesion DEMONSTRATIVE REFERENCE (DEICTICS)

Spatial demonstratives (here, there, this, these, that, those) are one of the
central ways in which language can be used to coordinate attention and enable
communicative interaction.
Demonstratives are deictic expressions (from Greek deixis, “demonstration and
indication”). They can be used to indicate any object, and their meaning
depends on the context of utterance. Demonstratives serve a fundamental role
in linking language with non-linguistic cognition in order to guide joint attention
during communication.
Such spatial adverbs and adverbial phrases as above, anywhere, behind,
below, downward, everywhere, forward, here, in, inside, left, near, outside, over
there, sideways, underneath, upward are also regarded as deictic expressions.
Spatial demonstratives, spatial adverbs (adverbial phrases) and the
definite article (the) are the forms that demonstrative references can take in a
text.

16. Grammatical cohesion DEMONSTRATIVE REFERENCE (DEICTICS)

To coordinate the readers’ attention, the author employs demonstrative references that are
verbalized by various language means: spatial demonstratives (demonstrative pronouns),
spatial adverbs and definite articles.
Example 1
With the development of modern novel traditional theories of poetic imagery appeared
inadequate as a means to deal with complex images found in narrative prose: Mikhail Bakhtin
pointed those shortcomings out to the critics long before contemporary narratology took its
present shape.
The demonstrative pronoun “those” is an instance of an anaphoric demonstrative reference
and is used to clarify that the shortcomings outlined by M. Bakhtin were related to traditional
theories of poetic imagery mentioned previously.
Example 2
The concept of such "images of language" appears as the crucial aspect of imagery in the case
study presented in section 3.3 below.
To inform the readers about where they can find a detailed description of the case study that
the author mentions, the spatial adverb “below” is employed as a cataphoric demonstrative
reference. In such a way the author helps the reader to navigate through the text and makes its
structure transparent.

17. Grammatical cohesion COMPARATIVE REFERENCE

Comparative reference tells the reader not just ‘to look elsewhere’ for information, but to look
elsewhere with a particular aim in mind – to compare the items that are being linked.
The most common way in English to mark grammatically that two items are being compared is
to add ‘-er’ to an adjective. It’s also possible to suggest comparison with more than one item,
by adding ‘-est’. Comparison can involve ideas about quantity and number: these meanings
are carried by words like ‘more’, ‘fewer’, ‘less’, ‘another’.
In many cases, we are given the reference point for the comparison being made <A is better
than B>. But it is also possible to omit the reference point – leaving out the aspect that the
mentioned item is being compared with <A is better>.
Example 1
This, however, is just a single aspect of a more general phenomenon: the general ability "to
depict things" is a fundamental property of human language, and "linguistic meaning is (in part)
imagery, or at least is closely linked to imagery“.
Example 2
It would then seem only natural to treat imagery as a property of all manifestations of language
use: a stance that tallies both with the notion of poetic language being a function of language
rather than one of its varieties […]

18. Grammatical cohesion SUBSTITUTION

Substitution is the replacement of a word or phrase with a filler word such as "one",
"so", or "do" in order to avoid tedious repetition and/or sound less monotonous.
Substitution comes in three flavors: nominal, verbal or clausal, depending on the item
being substituted.
“One” or “ones” are the terms most commonly used for nominal substitution in
English. Verbal substitution is realized through an auxiliary verb (do, be, have),
sometimes together with another substitute term such as “so” or “the same”.
NB! If substitution reminds you of pronoun reference, this is probably because the two
grammatical constructions are fairly similar. However, they are not the same and must
not be confused. It is important to point out differences between reference and
substitution.
1) One difference is that reference can reach a long way back in the text whereas
ellipsis and substitution are largely limited to the immediately preceding clause.
2) With reference, both items typically refer to the same thing. With ellipsis and
substitution, this is not the case. There is always some difference between the
second instance and the first. If a speaker or writer wants to refer to the same thing,
they use reference. If they want to refer to something different, they use substitution.

19. Grammatical cohesion ELLIPSIS

A situation in which words are left out of a sentence but the sentence can still be
understood. It happens when, after a more specific mention, words are omitted when the
phrase must be repeated.
As a type of cohesive device ellipsis is very similar to substitution. While substitution
refers to the replacement of one textual element by another, ellipsis is characterized by
the omission of an item. Ellipsis refers to sentences and clauses whose structure is such
as to presuppose some preceding items, which then serves as a source of missing
information.
FUNCTIONS:
• navigates the reader through the text by establishing anaphoric relations;
• helps to avoid repetition and make the text more laconic;
• creates a feeling of incompleteness (not applicable to scientific texts).
Example
Considered as an exclusive attribute of poetic language, it is traditionally associated with
what is called figurative language and restricted to the investigation of poetic metaphors,
symbols, allegories, i.e. "figures of speech“.

20. Grammatical cohesion CONJUNCTIONS AND CONNECTIVES

The term conjunction means ‘joining’. In a sense, all the aspects of cohesion
are about joining or linking items together, but conjunction refers specifically
to words and phrases which express how items should be linked. For
example, the use of the conjunction ‘but’ tells the reader that what is to follow
will revise, limit or re-focus the first part of the sentence.

21. Grammatical cohesion CONJUNCTIONS AND CONNECTIVES

Paragraphs are bound together by the inner logic of argumentation which finds its
reflection in the formal markers – connectives, which indicate:
time and place (above, below, earlier, elsewhere, further on, here, hitherto, so far,
there, afterwards, at the same time, formerly, later, simultaneously, subsequently, this
time, until now, etc);
sequence (first, second, finally, next, etc);
consequence (accordingly, as a result, hence, then, therefore, thus, etc.);
summing up (all in all, altogether, in conclusion, to summarize, etc);
restatement and insistence (in other words, in simpler terms, that is, that is to say,
to put the point another way, in fact, indeed, moreover, again, also, and, further,
furthermore, in addition, too, etc.);
concession (it is true that, of course, granted that, etc.);
likeness (analogously, correspondingly, similarly, etc);
contrast (but, however, nevertheless, on the contrary, etc).

22. Grammatical cohesion CONJUNCTIONS AND CONNECTIVES

Imagery, understood as tantamount to poetic imagery, has always been considered the soul of
poetry and the source of beauty, in short, the gist of verbal art. – the connective of
restatement; used to put the idea in different words/to rephrase the statement.
However, Bakhtin's arguments pertained chiefly to "images of language," that is "somebody
else's language" as used by an author of a polyphonic novel. – the adversative conjunction;
in this example it has both the functions of contrast and limitation.
In this sense, an "image of language" is, for instance, an image of a character, achieved
through the language which is employed as means of characterization: language is used "to
depict" characters. – the connective of restatement; used to elaborate on the previously
stated idea.
Indeed, the ubiquity of metaphor in natural language suggests that "figurative language" is not
an exclusive prerequisite of literature, while imagery "may simply reflect a highly creative and
productive function of images in language behaviour“. – the connective of insistence; used
to stress and highlight the message of the text.
It would then seem only natural to treat imagery as a property of all manifestations of language
use […]. – causal conjunction/connective of consequence; used to express the causeeffect relations.