ТМО_Бордачев en

1.

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2.

Theory and methodology
of international relations
Bordachev T.V., Master's degree, 1st year (summary presentation of the
course)

3.

The nature of the science of
international relations
• Reflects the practice of international politics and establishes its basic
patterns (a tool to make it easier to decide on the greater or lesser
significance of certain facts").
• It is the highest of all social sciences
1. Because there is no higher authority in the MoD
2. Because the central issue is that of "War and Peace" (conflict and
co-operation)
• Creates tools for analysing and forecasting international politics and
foreign policy of states

4.

Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804)
• "To approach nature not as a student listening to what his teacher
chooses to say, but as a judge forcing witnesses to answer questions
that he himself judges to be appropriate"

5.

Terminology
• International relations - a special type of social relations that go
beyond intra-societal interactions and territorial formations (states)
• World politics - the totality of connections across borders
• International politics - a set of external policies of states that form the
international environment
• The object of the TMO is the peoples that interact and the
international system
• The subject of TMO is the relations between states as a result of
interactions

6.

Main challenges of TMOs
1. System
The problem of war and peace
What do we see more of? What do we want? What do states want?
The problem of intentions - the intentions of states are always uncertain
Intentions in IO are not an analytical category
Interested not in what the partner wants, but in how to make them want what we want
"It is not intentions that matter, but potential" Bismarck
The problem of power and justice
The foreign policy activities of the state are aimed at achieving justice
in terms of its interests

7.

Main challenges of TMOs
1. Substantive issues
• The problem of actors (who acts? The state? Or someone other than states?)
• The nature of international relations (anarchy or orderliness?)
• Goals of States (one or many?)
• Means of States (Power or Integration?)
• Basic processes (conflict or co-operation?)
• Starting point of the analysis (immutability or variability of human nature?)
• The future of international relations (immutability or transformation?)
• The relationship between inside and outside (scale and shape?)
• International relations and political science are related but different disciplines

8.

Basic difference between ME and
Political Science
• The question of power and force
In political science, it's about power
In the MoD, it's about strength
POWER
Power - the ability to make laws
Strength - the ability to control the thoughts and actions of others
If one state starts making laws for another state - international relations end
Power is the ability to make another state make laws that favour your
interests

9.

Stages in the development of the
science of international relations
1. Origins (400 B.C.E. to Renaissance)
2. Philosophy of International Relations (Renaissance - early 20th
century)
3. International Relations Theory (early 20th century - present day)

10.

Features of the science of
international relations - TMO
• Western science (the bulk of the theories and approaches are based
on European experience)
• There is no Russian independent theory
• Peculiarities of the Chinese and Indian view of international relations
• 中 - the worldview and vision of China as the centre and there is no
point in studying the relationship between barbarians
• India - concentric circles of Mandala
Relationships of equality are impossible. All relations - centre and
others

11.

The main traditions and schools of
TMOs
• Classical realism
1. Strength and balance of power
• Classical liberalism
1. Progress and variability
• Marxism
1. Critical theory

12.

The main theories of IO
• Neorealism and neoclassical realism
1. Structure of the international system
• Neoliberalism or liberal institutionalism
1. Institutions that states create to co-operate and make intentions
more predictable
• Critical theories
1. Alternative factors

13.

Origins of the science of
international relations
• Ancient heritage
The most important is to put man and his unchanging nature, the
manifestations of that nature, at the centre of attention
• Christian and monotheistic tradition
The relationship between man and society, laws that can be dictated
from above and the variability of human nature

14.

Emergence of the modern science of
international relations
• Thucydides (471 - 401 B.C.) "The Peloponnesian War."
1. First in-depth analysis of relations between States
2. Many of the provisions remain relevant
The reasons for the war are the Phobos' fear of mutual reinforcement
"The growth (in itself, regardless of purpose - TB) of Athens' power
increased Sparta's fear"
Uncertainty of intent
Conflict cycle
The law plays a role only when the powers of states are equal (balance)

15.

Continuation of the classical
tradition
• Niccolo Machiavelli (1469 - 1527) "The Sovereign."
• Thomas Hobbes (1588 -1679) "Leviathan."
• Carl von Clausewitz (1780 - 1831) "On War."
• Kant On eternal peace
• Rousseau's Social Contract

16.

Crisis of the political system of the
Middle Ages
• Medieval political system in Europe - separation of secular and
spiritual loyalties
• Early 16th century - the disintegration of spiritual loyalties
• Early 17th century - the formation of a unified loyalty to the state

17.

Niccolò Machiavelli (1469 - 1527)
• "The Sovereign" is a rejection of morality as a principle of politics
• Ideology of sovereignty

18.

Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679).
The major work in the MoD is "Leviathan."
The contradiction between domestic order and international anarchy
• Man is by nature selfish and seeks power
• The result is "war of all against each" as a natural state of affairs
• To avoid extermination, people create the State - "Leviathan".
• But the relationship between the Leviathans remains at the level of
"war of all against each"
• The reason is social contact and the impossibility of a common state

19.

Westphalian order
"The genius of the Westphalian system and the reason it has spread
around the world is that it is procedural rather than substantive"
(Kissinger, 2006)
The Westphalian Order was the result of 16th - 17th century political
processes rather than a single document
• The Reformation and the Wars of Religion in Germany
• The emergence of absolute monarchies with national interests
• The struggle between universalism (Habsburgs) and sovereignty
(Protestants and France)

20.

The principles of the Westphalian order
(developed during the 16th and 17th centuries)
• The king is the emperor in his dominions
• The sovereign defines religion in its territory
• No one has to be stronger than everyone else
The Westphalian order was not the result of a single treaty, but the
results of a process that took almost 150 years in Europe, reflected in
several treaties

21.

The nature of the Westphalian order
• The central role of the sovereign State
• Limiting the rights of states to aggression
• Law (written by 400 lawyers, not kings)

22.

Completion of the modern
international system
• 18th century - from the sovereignty of the monarch to the sovereignty of
the nation
• USA and France
• 1815 - Congress of Vienna - balance of power system
• 19th century - formation of nation states in Europe and the world
• 1840 - the incorporation of China
• Jeremy Bentham (1748 - 1832) - "the relations between nations."
• 1919 The first Chair of International Relations ("Woodrow Wilson Chair") is
established at the University of Wales, whose main purpose was to promote
the work of the newly formed League of Nations.

23.

Lecture 2 Ancient Heritage and
Classical Tradition in the TMO
"The Peloponnesian War."
Armed conflict (431 - 404 BC) in ancient Greece involving the Delossian
Union led by Athens on one side and the Peloponnesian Union led by
Sparta on the other.
After a period of wars with the Persians (500 - 449 BC) Athens and
Sparta were the most powerful states in Greece, they strengthened
during the wars and gained allies.

24.

"The Peloponnesian War"
Thucydides
• The first in-depth analysis of the nature of relations between states
1. Melos dialogue
• "The strong do what they can and the weak do what the strong allow
them to do."
• "By conquering you we increase not only the strength but also the
security of our empire."
• "To rule where you can is a natural and necessary rule."
• "It is more profitable for you to become subservient than to suffer the
cruelest calamities."

25.

Carl von Clausewitz (1780 - 1831)
"On War."
• Conflict is a systemic element of international relations
• International relations - relations between states whose main concern
is the realisation of their policies towards the outside world. War is an
instrument of policy, which is the goal
• Domestic policy does not play a role in shaping foreign policy
• At the heart of foreign policy is the constancy of human nature

26.

Edward Carr (1892 - 1982) "20 Years of Crisis 1919 1939: An Introduction to the Study of International
Relations
• Analysing the causes of the Second World War on the eve of its
outbreak
• The cause of war is a mismatch of order and balance of power
All power in international affairs belonged to the victors in the First
World War (Great Britain, USA, France)
The other powers (Germany, Japan, Italy, USSR) were totally dissatisfied
with their situation and sought "revolutionary change"
The concept of "political change" as an alternative to "revolutionary
change"

27.

Edward Carr
• Politics in international relations is not a product of mere ethics
(morality), but stems from their special nature (Leviathan). Thus in
international relations morality is a product of power.
• "to the extent that the supposed harmony of interests (i.e.,
agreement on international order) comes even close to reality, it is
created by the overwhelming power of a privileged group, illustrating
Machiavelli's thesis that morality is a product of power"
• Whoever is strongest, morality comes first

28.

Edward Carr
• "When the passions of war are inflamed, it would be a fatal
oversimplification to write off the causes of catastrophe solely on the
ambition and arrogance of a small group of leaders" (1939)
• "No political community, national or international, can exist without
people obeying rules. The problem of why people should obey these
rules is fundamental to political philosophy"
There is no solution to this problem and therefore force to enforce the
rules is the only answer
But power always belongs to states - the rules inevitably reflect the
interests and values of those states (to whom power belongs)

29.

Edward Carr
• "Force is a necessary instrument of governance. The internationalisation of
governance in reality means the internationalisation of force. And
internationalised governance is actually governance by the state providing the
force necessary to govern"
• "What was universally defined as the "return of power politics" in 1931 was, in fact,
the end of the power monopoly previously held by the status quo powers (Britain,
France, and the USA - the victors of the World War II)
• Conclusion: in order to avoid (in the ME) a revolutionary situation, all powers
capable of destroying it must participate in (international) governance (UNSC
after 1945).
• The 5 permanent member countries of the UNSC are militarily stronger than all
others - no other country in the world can defeat each of them militarily

30.

Reinhold Niebuhr (1892 - 1971)
• Religious philosopher and preacher
• "Moral Man and Amoral Society" (1933)
• Every human being is a bearer of morality (Christianity), but in society
• The state (collective) is the result of a contract between people and
creates a collective interest
• "in the collective (state) the individual mind (conscience, morality)
becomes the servant of the collective interest"
• "It is impossible to draw a clear dividing line between the will to live and
the will to power" (states defend themselves but go straight to expansion)

31.

Hans Morgenthau (1904 - 1980).
• Born in Germany, studied in Europe, lived and worked in the United
States since 1937
• Summarised the experience of the classical tradition of IO theory
• 1948 Political Relations Between Nations - was the premier textbook
on International Relations Theory for 25 years
• 6 principles of political realism

32.

H. Morgenthau's 6 principles of
realism. Morgenthau
• Politics, like society as a whole, is governed by objective laws rooted in the unchanging and imperfect nature
of man, attempts to change which are always doomed to failure; it is possible to create a theory that more or
less reflects these laws.
• Political realism takes into account the significance of political action from a moral perspective. It also takes
into account the inevitable contradiction between moral prescription and the demands of political action.
• The main feature of political realism is the concept of interest, defined in terms of power/force, which
rationally orders the subject matter of politics, thus making its theoretical understanding possible.
• Interest, defined as power/power, is an objective, universally valid category, but not because it is supposedly
established once and for all; the content and mode of power is conditioned by the political and cultural
context.
• The refusal to identify the moral aspirations of a particular state with universal moral laws, i.e. no state has a
monopoly on virtue, on establishing "what is morally right and wrong"; it is the concept of interest that
prevents abuses of this kind.
• The political sphere is autonomous; for a politician, defining interest as power/power is the same as defining
interest as wealth for an economist.

33.

Henry Kissinger (1923-present)
• Practitioner and theorist of international relations
• "A Reassessment of the Congress of Vienna" (1956)
"A relatively stable order is possible when all participants are equally
dissatisfied. The most unstable is when one is completely satisfied with
the state of affairs"
"If one state views another state's domestic notions of justice as a
threat, there is no ground for diplomatic dialogue"
1972 - Kissinger goes to China.

34.

Russia in Kissinger's work
• At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Emperor Alexander did not want
to talk about European order in the sense of organisation, rules and
division of territories. Emperor Alexander did not want to talk about
the European order in terms of organisation, rules and division of
territories (he only said Poland should be given to Russia completely)
• He talked about morality, God and so on - why?
• He was the strongest - his army stood in the centre of Europe
• The strongest in principle is not always interested in the order
• Russia's security in 1815 did not depend on order in Europe

35.

The main categories of classical
realism
• STATISM - the state as the only alternative to anarchy
• SELF-HELP - there can be no supreme authority in international
relations and therefore everyone ultimately helps themselves
• SURVIAVAL - survival is the main goal of the state, to which the
other goals are subordinated, i.e. one goal
Also:
Balance of power
Relative and absolute benefits

36.

The question of force (attribute of
the state) in international relations
• The traditional viewpoint is the only regulator and instrument for achieving
stability (peace)
• "Control by one (state) of the thoughts and actions of another"
(H. Morgenthau)
• Central category of IO, as it replaces the category of "power" in political
science
• The power of the state is always relative
Other States - assessed by us in comparison with others
Relationships as such and their extent Roman Empire and the Tang Empire
in the 3rd century CE.

37.

Balance of Power (Edward Haas,
1953)
• Balance, meaning "distribution of power" - an equilibrium resulting from the equal distribution of
power among nation-states. (Balance as a description of the existing balance of power distribution
between subjects; does not imply any counterbalance) [Haas, 1953, pp. 447-448].
• Balance, meaning "equilibrium" - an equilibrium resulting from the unequal distribution of power
between nation-states. (Balance of power as a condition of equality of power, the exact equilibrium of
forces between two or more opposing parties) [Haas, 1953, pp. 448-449].
• Balance, meaning "hegemony" - an equilibrium resulting from the dominance of a single nation-state
("balancer"). (Or in search of hegemony; all states seek a hegemonic position and are therefore in
constant conflict with each other; the conflict, if it stops short of total war, must lead to some
equilibrium. However, this state cannot be stable, since the statesmen do not seek equilibrium but
hegemony; if at a certain point equilibrium is achieved, it will be immediately nullified by the search for
minor superiority) [Haas, 1953, pp. 449-450].
• Balance, meaning "stability" and "peace" - a system that provides relative stability and peace. (This
does not mean that balance of power is the method of achieving peace and stability, but peace and
stability are identical to balance of power) [Haas, 1953, pp. 450-451].

38.

Balance of power
• Balance, meaning "instability" and "war" - a system characterised by instability and war. (The
term "balance of power" as a synonym for the concepts: war, intervention, competition and
instability) [Haas, 1953, P. 451].
• Balance, meaning "power politics" in general, is another way of expressing power politics.
(Balance of power as a basic element of politics; "balance of power" here refers to the concept
that the survival of a state in the competitive international world requires the use of force not
backed by moral considerations; power/force, power politics, realpolitik and balance of power
are combined into one concept. The use of the term "balance of power" in this conventional
meaning refers to the overall power of states in the international arena, which is dominated by
the politics of force. States are portrayed as struggling for power. Consequently, the struggle for
the balance of power is equivalent to the power political process as a whole; moreover, the
balance of power in a sense means any combination of power to stop "aggression"; the
balance of power here should not be understood as a refinement of the general process of
power politics, but identical to it) [Haas, 1953, pp. 451-452].

39.

Balance of power
• Balance, implying a "universal law of history" - universal law of history Political action is the
result of the pursuit of "power after power", greed and avarice. Amplification/enlargement is a
political motive that is central to understanding international relations. Balance of power means
the instinctive opposite of the reasoned thesis of "raison d'etat". Unconscious moderation
temporarily restrains deliberate greed. This creates a general dialectic of power relations in
which the balance of power plays a role. However, the balance is not permanent and can be
changed at any moment. It guarantees neither peace nor law. In fact, it implies war and its own
destruction whenever a state, previously a 'balancer', acquires sufficient power/strength to
challenge the equilibrium it was designed to maintain) [Haas, 1953, pp. 452-455].
• Balance as a "system" and a "guide" to policy making - a guide for policy makers. (Making
political and foreign policy decisions in accordance with user intentions. In formulating the
balance of power as a system of political organisation and a guide to policy making, the emphasis
is on conscious and deliberate behaviour and decision making ) ) [Haas, 1953, pp. 455-458].

40.

Other categories of classical realism
• Anarchy and the anarchic system as a result of the contradiction
between domestic order and international anarchy (Leviathan)
• Sovereignty (state = billiard ball)
• Structure of the international system - the way states are organised in
the system (can be a balance of power)
• National interest
• Power capabilities (Carr: military power, economic power; power to
influence minds)

41.

Lecture 3 Liberalism
Co-operation, institutions (ASEAN, EU, EAEU, etc.) and integration (joint
solutions to common problems) (States)
• Origins of liberal theory
• Three stages in the development of liberal theory
• The content of the main approaches within liberal theory and its
categories

42.

Origins of liberal IO theory
• "Creates an eternal debate between utopia and reality" (E. H. Carr) and
has at its core a medieval European system with universal values and
universal ethics
• Emerged during the Enlightenment as a result of the search for a way out
of the declining moral authority of the Church
• By virtue of its association with utopia, aims to change political reality
• Because it is based on Christian tradition, it presupposes the mutability of
human nature
• Linear theory - development from A to B
• Finding how to change human and state behaviour = peace

43.

Origins of liberal ME theory
• The focus is on the individual and his or her freedoms
• The State is the guarantor of human freedom

44.

3 stages in the development of
liberal IO theory
• Liberal internationalism (Enlightenment - early 20th century)
• Liberal Idealism (1919 - 1939)
• Liberal Institutionalism (1945 - present day)

45.

Stages in the development of liberal
TMOs
Development stage
Main object
The cause of the war
A way to achieve peace
Internationalism
person
state
Individual freedom
Idealism
state
Unfair balance of power
Institutionalism
International system
The balance of power, as
such
Collective security based
on national selfdetermination
Institutions (world
government)

46.

Key founding authors
• Hugo Grotius (1583 - 1645)
• Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804)
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 1778).

47.

Hugo Grotius (1583 - 1645)
The Netherlands is a relatively small and commercial country in the
centre of western Europe
• The doctrine of natural law
• "The mother of natural law is the very nature of human
communication"
• Unified rational basis of law
• International law does not abolish war, but regulates it
• "Without law there is no justice and only through it lies the way to
the real benefit of the state"

48.

Book "About the Law of War and
Peace" (1625)
• Volume 1 Develops the concept of just war
• Volume 2 Justification of 3 reasons for a "just" war
Self-defence
Compensation for loss
Punishment of the aggressor
• Volume 3 Norms of Warfare
The problem is the absolutisation of rational European law

49.

The basics of tradition
Mid and second half of the 18th century
• Contradiction between domestic law and international lawlessness
• The emergence of federal states
И. Kant - Self-interested relations will lead to a law-based society and
relations between states can be the same (rational behaviour)
Perpetual (democratic) peace is based on a contract between states
that will solve the problem of suspicion (i.e., uncertainty of intent) solving the problem of fear

50.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 1778).
• The concept of direct democracy as a form of government of the
people by the state
• "The Social Contract" (1762) - the basis of the classical republican
order, the most important philosophical work of the West "Man was
born free, but everywhere he is in chains. He who thinks himself
master of others is an even greater slave."
• In the state of nature, morality and law did not exist - they were
created by humans
• People come together through a social contract and restrict their
natural rights in exchange for life and liberty

51.

Rousseau's social contract
• The devolution of power (not freedom) to the general will guarantees
freedom from attempts to place it under the control of others and
ensures respect for laws authored by all
• There is a clear separation between the Sovereign (the right to make
laws) and the Government (the right to govern based on those laws)
• The ideal system is direct democracy (governance by referendum)

52.

Differences between Rousseau's and
Hobbes's concepts
• Hobbes - people, in order to avoid destroying each other transfer
their rights to the state (Leviathan)
• Rousseau - people, in order to avoid destroying each other unite and
create a government
Example:
European Union - 27 States
• Adoption of laws (EU Treaty, regulations, directives,
recommendations) - Council of the EU (countries)
• Enforcement of laws - countries and the European Commission

53.

Liberal idealism
• Political continuation of "economic" theories (A. Smith)
• The idea of a natural harmony of interests
• Woodrow Wilson (1856 - 1924).
• Natural harmony does not work as there is not enough
interdependence (in 1913 UK and Germany were the largest trading
partners)
• Peace - cannot be a natural state, but must be created by states
• League of Nations the first universal institution for collective security

54.

Liberal institutionalism
• Systems theory
• Carr's ideas about "political change" - special attention to the
bearers of that change
• Institutions
• Advantage of absolute benefits over relative benefits

55.

Critical categories of TMOs
Subject of the debate
Realism
Liberalism
Marxism
Actors (actors)
State
States and non-state
actors
Social classes
The nature of the
international system
Anarchy (impossibility of
power and order)
Restrictors and
entitlement
Imperialist exploitation
Objectives of States
One goal is survival
Multiple objectives
The goals are not of
states, but of classes
Means of achieving peace Strength and balance of
power
Institutions and cooperation
Processes in international
politics
Co-operation and
interdependence
Overthrowing the
domination of other
classes
Class conflicts and
revolutions
Conflicts and wars

56.

Critical categories of TMOs
Subject of the debate
Realism
Liberalism
Marxism
The future of
international relations
The relationship is
unchanging
Perfection and "eternal
peace"
Starting point of the
analysis
Why do I (we) think this
way?
The immutability of
human nature
The variability of human
nature and values
The triumph of
communism
The "disappearance" of
international relations
Economic interests
Constructivism
"Anarchy is what states
do."

57.

• System - a set of elements (states (P) or states + non-state actors (L)
and the interrelationships between them
• Structure - a way of organising elements within a system (how? On
what principle? Based on what?).
• What in the elements is most important in determining their place in
the structure?
• R- military power - 2 states whose military capabilities are superior to
all others
• L- cumulative capabilities (multiple states matter)

58.

Systemic Theories - Neorealism
and Neoliberalism
• Systems theory looks at IOs as a whole rather than a collection of states' external
policies
• If states act under the influence of external conditions, on the basis of what laws
do these conditions develop?
• "Theory deals with holistic autonomous spheres. Since foreign policy (of the state
- TB) is dictated by both external and internal factors, it cannot be regarded as an
autonomous sphere and, therefore, we should not seek to theorise it"
• "International political theory can tell us what pressures and opportunities the
structure of the international system puts on states, but it cannot tell us how
states will respond to those pressures and take advantage of those opportunities"
(Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics 1924 - 2013)

59.

Neorealism (structural realism)
Kenneth Waltz
• "Man, State and War" (1959)
• "Theory of International Politics" (1979)
The question of the impact of an anarchic international environment on
the behaviour of States and their internal structure
Objectives:
• Separate international policy from foreign policy
• Separate the science of IO from political science

60.

Critical categories
Systems theory
• Neorealism (structural realism)
• Neoliberalism (liberal institutionalism)
The international system is the totality of states and the links between
them
Structure of the international system - the way states are organised
within the system (types of structures)

61.

The legacy of classical realism in
neo-realism
• States as main actors and anarchy as a state of the international
environment
• Impossibility of universal institutions
• National interest = survival (The state is a billiard ball)
• Rational behaviour of states - states do not commit suicidal acts

62.

Structure of the international
system
• Consensus on the integrity of the world and the existence of a global
system (20th century, yes - a world of sovereign states)
• The question of stability of systems (if anarchy is inevitable, why is
there peace?) Why is the system more or less stable?)
• Influence of the structure on states
It is the structure that can be more or less stable
Let's study the structure!

63.

The question of war and peace
• The security of a state is derived from the structure of the
international system
Stable and unstable systems/structures (unipolar, bipolar, multipolar)
• The system operates according to its own laws
• The combined capabilities of states - force - i.e. all the capabilities of
a state in relation to a situation
• Functionally, all states are the same - what differs is their ability to
respond to challenges and opportunities from the system

64.

The question of war and peace
• Anarchy is unchanging
• Only the great powers play a role
• Each country chooses remedies according to its own size

65.

Offensive and defensive neorealism
Offensive (John Mearsheimer)
• Conflict is inevitable
• The benefits of states are always relative to each other
• Someone always benefits from co-operation more than others
• Conflict is inevitable in principle
• Relative strength is most important
Defensive (Kenneth Waltz).
• Conflict is inevitable, but interdependence limits it
• A matter of perception

66.

Neoliberalism / Liberal Institutionalism
(Robert Owen Cochain. 1941; Joseph Nye, 1937; Ernst Haas, 1924 - 2003)
• Institutions - permanent sets of rules and practices that define roles
and limit the freedom of action, form and intentions of states
• Institutions can be organisations, agencies, contracts and agreements,
informal practices and customs
• Institutions create multiple channels of interaction and this reduces
suspicion
• Institutions raise the price of deception and the price of exit
• The problem of the ability of institutions to influence the behaviour of
states and stop them from trying to maximise their advantages and
benefits vis-à-vis other states

67.

Regime Theory (Stephen Krasner,
1942)
• Regimes are social institutions based on agreed rules, norms,
principles and procedures. Converge and define interactions between
states and non-state actors. Regimes are not necessarily universal
• Principles - worldview
• Norms - general standards of behaviour
• Rules - resolving conflict situations
• Procedures - specific interactions

68.

Regimes in the categories of the
liberal and realist schools of the
TMO
(neo)Realists
(neo)Liberals
1.
2.
3.
4.
1. States operate in an anarchic system
2. States are rational and unified players
3. States create regimes
4. Regimes are based on co-operation
5. Regimes favour order (without government)
Regimes provide States with opportunities to
1. Modes enable you to work together
coordinate their actions
2. Regimes develop a common good
Regimes create different benefits for different
3. Regimes need a "wise" hegemon
states
4. Regimes spread liberalisation and globalisation
The strength of the actors determines the
emergence and functioning of the regime
The state of the world depends on regimes, but
not fundamentally so

69.

English School for International
Co-operation
• Barry Buzan, Hadley Bull (1960s-1980s)
• International society - a sociological approach
• Anarchy is the absence of government, not the absence of
governability in principle
• Norms are the result of the activities of States
• The notion of "mature anarchy" (Buzan) is more robust norms

70.

The concept of interdependence (Stanley Cohen
and Joseph Nye)
• The scale and number of interactions between states that are relevant to the realisation of their
interests
• Complex interdependence arises from the increasing complexity of the world
• Thus the main research objective is global governance and its improvement
• The world gets 4 main characteristics:
1. Strengthening ties between states and non-state actors
2. Blurring the line between high and low politics - a new agenda
3. Multiplicity of channels of interaction between participants - actors - globalisation
4. The decline in the effectiveness of state military power is 1) a product of the development of a
community of market democracies 2) a product of the Cold War
• The main difference from neorealism is the importance of co-operation, even in an anarchic system,
the role of institutions.
• Institutions are the mediators through which states organise their cooperation.

71.

The Problem of Justice / Marxism
Marxism and neo-Marxism
• The state is not the main actor (actor)
• К. Marx and F. Engels on International Relations.
• Lenin's theory of imperialism and its historical context.
• "Capital" 1867
• "Hidden" mechanisms of world politics and international relations
• The concept of the structure of the world capitalist system, within the framework and according to
the rules of which all international phenomena take place.
• The structure works to enrich the rich and exploit the poor
• Moving away from the dispute about the State
• "universal" sociology - no separate social sciences
• Materialist concept - changes as a result of economic processes

72.

Varieties of Marxist approaches
• Classical Marxism
• Gramscianism
• Wallerstein's World System Theory (neo-Marxism)
• Critical theory of IO in general

73.

Lenin's theory of imperialism: origin
and historical context
1917 г. "Imperialism as the highest stage of development of capitalism"
the result of a systematised attempt to apply Karl Marx's ideas to the field of international relations
Abstracts:
•The pattern of production determines social and political relations
•History can only be understood in the context of class conflict
•However, the nature of capitalism has changed since Marx's time (Capital 1867) - monopolistic capitalism has emerged
•The emergence of centre and periphery is the basis of conflict i.e. a departure from Marx's anti-geographical approach
•Thus the breakdown of the harmony of interests of the classes (especially the exploited)

74.

Basic Marxism
And - the structural differences between centre and periphery determine the
relations of the bourgeoisie and proletariat in each country
•All politics takes place within a capitalist economy
•The position of the state and classes within the capital economy determines their
behaviour in the world and defines the relations between them
Antonio Gramsci (1891 - 1937)
•Wondered why socialist revolutions didn't happen in Western Europe and the US
•Used the concept of hegemony in relation to intra-societal relations - hegemony
of "common sense" - Machiavelli's state
•But based not only on suppression, but also on social contract - through civil
society (media, etc.) with some degree of autonomy from the state
•Not MO theory, but - the basis of a critical approach!

75.

Constructivism - international social cultural norms and its
representatives
The end of the Cold War from 1985 to 1991
Alexander Wendt - "social constructs" late 20th century
Alexander Wendt Anarchy is what States Make of it: The Social Construction of Power Politics \\ International Organisation, Vol. 46, No. 2 (Spring, 1992), pp. 391425
Norms are not linked to political legitimacy but to social processes
•The norms are malleable
•States don't control them
•International politics - the interaction and interweaving of norms
•States change under the influence of the external environment - independent norms
•Sovereignty is a norm corresponding only to a certain international system

76.

Geopolitical approaches to analysing
international relations
• Interdependence between foreign policy and the geographical environment
• The science of international relations of the nineteenth century era. A period of relatively stable system. The Congress of Vienna.
• Approaches to modern realist theory comparable to the concepts of Carl Clausewitz
• Rudolf Chellen (1846 - 1922)
• Alfred Machen (1840 - 1914).
• Niklas Spijkman / Spijkman
• These days - perception of globalisation agenda - (Pierre Galois) - mass and direct intervention of people in politics
• 1990s - A broad interpretation of geopolitics
• Total resources - population and natural resources
• Environmental factors - impact on resources and opportunities to utilise them

77.

Peculiarities of modern TMO
Carr, 1939
• The science of international relations is the science of governing the
world from a position of strength
• A state makes foreign policy only on the basis of power relations with
other states

78.

Critical TMO issues
• Question about actors - who acts? (subject)
• The question of conflict - what is the relationship? (subject.)
(conflict is present in both competitive and co-operative environments)
• The question of morality and law are immaterial factors in the
behaviour of states (as opposed to force, which is material)

79.

The problem of the active unit in the
analysis of international relations: a
discussion of participants and "actors" in
international relations.
• Traditionally (diplomacy, history, journalism, etc.) it is the state that is the protagonist of IOs
• There are less than 200 governments in the world
• 60,000 TNCS
• 10,000 domestic NGOs
• 250 intergovernmental organisations (IGOs)
• 5,800 international NGOs (INGOs)
• The main question is: does this whole array of non-states play its own role? Independent
of the state.
• And, accordingly, how do we account for them in theoretical analyses of international
relations?

80.

Classical approaches
• Realism - has none since any "non-states" are agents of states and
nothing more
• Liberalism - plays and the extent of this role can be defined by the
dependence on the 'political effect' of non-state actors ... influence on
the MoD environment?
• T.o. - Definition of the content of the concept of "political effect"

81.

The problem of regulating the
activities of non-state players
• However - regardless of the answer - the state still has the most
influence
• as there is no universal international law governing their activities a matter of international law, which is the law of states

82.

The question of labelling actors
• The concept of "subject" is too broad. It requires clarification for the study of social relations.
• In this regard, the attempt to narrow the concept:
• Subject of IO as a social relationship
• "social agent" - the system's social and cultural control over it.
• "social actor" - makes changes in the environment, influences the system
• "international actor" is a matter of actorness!
• Actor - emphasis on behaviour, action. + play different roles
• A social community (state or non-state actor) can be considered as an international actor if it
influences international relations, enjoys recognition and has a degree of autonomy in
decision-making.
• Actors or participants? By degree of influence on the state of the environment.

83.

Signs of the State in the MoD
Three concepts (attributes) of the state:
• State (legal) - a legal entity with territory "sovereignty"
• Country (political) - a community of people within a single internal
political system
• Government (sociological) - existence and functioning of the
administration

84.

The modern "Westphalian" form of states
• Since the 16th century, with the advent of borders
• From the 18th and 19th centuries, a nation state
• The concept of the nation is at the heart of the state
1. - commonality of territory (territory is the only objective feature)
2. - commonality of economic activities defined by resources
3. - cultural community
4. - National identity (common historical destiny)
5. National-state sovereignty = the right to make laws

85.

Stratification of states
according to capabilities (strength)
• Superpowers (can influence the living conditions of all mankind) USA, Russia, China
• Great Powers (influential but not dominant) - UK, France, India,
Germany
• Medium (influence in the environment) - majority
• Small (can defend sovereignty) - majority
• Micro (trusting others to protect sovereignty) - units

86.

Contemporary challenges to the state as
the main actor in international relations
.
•The advantage of focusing on the state is simplification of
analysis
Political Challenges of Recent Times
•The social role of non-state and transnational actors influencing the fulfilment by states of their basic functions
•The political role of transnational actors
•The problem of "capture" of States by NGOs

87.

Theoretical Challenges
However, from a theoretical point of view, we can count 4 problems
that make this simplification detrimental to the quality of the analysis:
• The unresolved issue of the three concepts of the State (legal entity
with territory - State, political community - country, administration government)
• Lack of equal capacity and size of states (50 TNCs each have revenues
greater than the GNP of 132 UN countries)
• Unity of the state (holism) and unity of non-state actors
• The problem of national loyalty as the highest level of loyalty

88.

Categories of non-state transnational actors in
terms of their ability to exert political influence
Multinational companies
• Lobbyism
• Intra-company trading (between branches in different countries)
• Extraterritoriality
• Independent arbitration (e.g. Basel Committee on Banks)
Unrecognised groups and "liberation movements"
• Cross-border crime
• International terrorism
Non-governmental organisations
• Consultative status with the UN
• Communications and media

89.

The concept and concepts of security. "The
Security Dilemma. Global and regional
security systems in the theory of
international relations. Conflict, War
General debate on security
• Security - freedom from threats, guarantee of independence with respect to the
basic interests/values of an individual and/or group.
• Linked to the notion of "national interest" as a derivative of the security of survival
• A question of primary focus? - Individual, national or international
• During the Cold War period, the national
• After ethnic, now it's ethnic again
• The question of compatibility between national and international security - the
ability of states, given the specificities of the international system, to take into
account the categories of co-operation.

90.

Neorealists
• National security is a product of the structure of the international
system
• Security dilemma - unknown intentions and build-up of forces and
perception of the other side's measures: preparation or intention
• The obstacle to moving to the level of international security is
deception and the search for relative benefits (since absolute ones
are impossible)

91.

Neorealism
• The question of the circumstances that compel states to co-operate in the field of
security
• Increasing uncertainties
• The problem of rational choice of parity
• The problem of deception - risk assessment in co-operation and competition (arms
control or arms race)
The concept of "mature anarchy" and security co-operation
• Increased awareness of the dependence of one's safety on the safety of others
• States realise the danger of competition in the increasing murderousness of weapons
• while structure still determines behaviour - security is still a structural derivative

92.

Liberalism / neoliberalism
Liberal institutionalism (Grotzian approach)
• Institutions strengthen states' security through communication and more
• Therefore, the development of a network of complementary institutions
• But - the most important players remain outside the institutions!
"In a collective, the individual mind is the servant of the collective interest"
R. Niebuhr, 1933
Democratic peace theory (revolutionary - Kantian approach)
• Kant's ideas and "democracies are not at war with each other"

93.

The concept of collective
security
• State behaviour - not only national interest, but also domestic factors
• The behaviour of the state is a product not only of the system but also
of the influence of ideas.
• Strengthening national security through the adoption of common
norms and principles
• The renunciation of military force within
• Incorporating community interests into the national interest
• Trust

94.

Alternative theories
Constructivist approaches (social constructs)
• Changing the way we think about security - Gorbachev
Critical Approaches (Robert Cox)
• States are a threat, part of the problem, not part of the solution
• The answer is the exemption of human security from the state
Copenhagen School - processes of integration and fragmentation in the world and Europe raise questions of
"public/human security"
• The emergence of political communities larger than states
• A conscious shift away from the security-state nexus
• + the concept of a "global society" and its security challenges

95.

Global and Regional Security Systems in
International Relations Theory.
• UN
• OSCE
• NATO
• Any international security institution is: universal, regional or
collective

96.

Security dilemma
A structural notion whereby states' attempts to provide security
through selfhelp lead, regardless of their true intentions, to increasing
insecurity for others, as each perceives its own measures as defensive
and those of others as offensive.
Security is a subjective concept, i.e. based on one's own historical
experience and knowledge

97.

The concept of conflict and types of conflicts
(economic, religious, ethnic, ideological)
• Conflict - a clash between collective actors over values, status, power, etc., in which
the aim is to weaken or neutralise
• Conflict - incompatibility of the parties' goals in specific conditions of their realisation
"My interests and those of my cousin Francis are the same - we both want the Duchy
of Milan" (Charles 5, early 16th century)
• Opposing interests, the simultaneous realisation of which is impossible due to their
objectivity (i.e. their link to national development and security)
• Conflict is an extreme form of aggravation of contradiction
• The problem of the function of conflict is destructive or constructive "time to scatter
stones..."

98.

Typology of conflicts
• Structural
• Destructive
• Conflict can arise in both adversarial and co-operative environments
• Crisis - a stage of conflict escalation
Conflict resolution
• War - result = weakening or neutralisation of one of the participants
• Negotiations and the "third party"
• In the 20th century, the collectivisation of measures and the binding nature of
norms on the use of force

99.

Conflict research
• There is no general theory of conflict!
• Since there is no link between actors' attributes and their behaviour
• Since conflict factors vary throughout the conflict cycle process
• Since the motivations and nature of conflicts rarely coincide with each other
Strategic Studies - securing national interests and security to win the war (classical realism
paradigm)
• The SI objective is to determine what the behaviour of a state in a conflict situation must be
in order to win the conflict
• Addressing the problem of war - causes and consequences for the region and the world.
• "Abnormality" of war in the context of nuclear weapons (Waltz - proliferation promotes
peace)

100.

Conflict research
But:
• stability exists in a confrontational form
• lower-level conflicts
• risk of escalation
• In the 80s - the new "Grand Strategy" concept of possible victory by perfect defence - BMD
• Conflict research - finding out
• origins
• reasons
• types of conflicts
• - structure (realism, Soviet) - unbalanced structure and unclear strength of states!
• - context (blurring or changing power relations) - state of the environment!
• Peace studies (autonomy is relative) - ways to resolve conflicts
• Peace is not just the absence of war, but law and justice

101.

Morality and law in international
relations
• Morality has no material basis (unlike force)
• Realism - morality is not present in the IO and can only be represented
by the morality of the dominant state or group state
• BUT! Thucydides (PW) "praise is due to those who rule less than their
capabilities allow" the basis of realism's view of morality is selflimitation (by its own field)
• Liberalism - morality is intrinsic to the individual and the state
• Marxism - morality has a class nature i.e. it is not an attribute of the
state at all - as the state is only a tool in the hands of the classes - same
with critical theories (racial theory, feminism).

102.

• There has always been a need for rules governing the measure of
what is permissible - legal and moral rules
• There has always been ambiguity in assessing the regulatory role of
law and morality - the extent of influence
• While there is no substitute for Machiavelli's principle of sovereign
responsibility
Interaction between the state and its citizens - political science
Interaction of States - International Relations

103.

Normative and legal approaches to international
relations
• 17th century - Personification of the state with the emergence of
sovereignty and the nation state - (Grotius) creation of international
law
• ? Who is the subject of morality in international relations ?
• the result of the search for alternative ways of regulating relations in
the international community to "classical" realism (force).
• A product of liberal thought - opposing the "ethics of responsibility"
and the "double standard" that realism considers the norm
• Although - the problem is the focus on the state - where is the
solution? Can the state itself have morality?

104.

Formation, basic principles and contradictions of
modern international law
• Initially any international law - rules of engagement
• Law of War
1. Theological concept of law
2. Metaphysical concept of law - sovereignty and nationality
3. Anthropomorphic concept of law - concept of absolutism (wars between families)
4. Imperial law - established by a single power
• Modern international law is "a particular system of rights operating in the
international system".
• It is based on European domestic law and the concept of sovereignty, i.e. it is of
"Westphalian origin".

105.

Basic Principles of International Law
Its broadest and most important norms, expressing the main content and
characteristic features, possessing supreme, peremptory legal force.
10 principles in 3 groups (UN Charter)
• Formative provisions on equality of subjects
Sovereign equality
• Insisting on their independence
Inviolability of borders or non-interference in internal affairs
• Aimed at the peaceful settlement of controversies
Co-operation and peaceful settlement of disputes

106.

Niklas Spykman (first half of the
20th century) N. Spykman
• The geopolitical position of a state is not a predetermined or coercive
factor, but an opportunity to
• 1942 "international co-operation can only be the result of a dynamic
balance of power"
• Changes in the balance of power of states inevitably affect their ability
to co-operate (and its intensity)
• The UN and international law is the co-operation of the state

107.

Foreign policy as a separate subject
of research
• Method - knowledge of how to obtain new knowledge and use it for
applied purposes of practical activity, the sum of techniques and
means, the totality of already available knowledge.

108.

The basis of the methodology of the science of
international relations
• Separating the research position from moral and value judgements
and personal views;
• Use of analytical techniques and procedures common to the social
sciences;
• Systematisation - development of general approaches to building
models facilitating the discovery and application of "laws".
• In fact, the main issue is the first - since one's own views cannot be
avoided - controlling the 'ideological presence' factor, recognising
the relativity of any conclusions.

109.

It is positivism, based on axioms about the
objectivity of facts and patterns, the separation of
facts from values
• Constructivism:
• Robert Cox "there can be no theory detached from point of view and
space"
• Alexander Wendt - "anarchy is a result, a product of the belief and
will of the decision makers, not a cause"

110.

Main approaches
• Historical-descriptive or intuitive-logical traditional (G. Morgenthau)
• Operational-applied, quantitative, application of methods of exact
sciences (American school of the second half of the 20th century,
rejection of history and philosophy) - "creation of models can easily
lead to dogmatism and ignoring reality" H. Bull)
• Also - in maths, 2 over 2 is always a 4, but not in MOE

111.

Combination of approaches
(according to R. Aron)
• Theory - the essence, specificity and driving forces of this special type
of social relations
• Sociology - internal determinants and patterns of development and
change of this species
• History - their actual development and the search for regularities
• Praxiology - the process of preparing, making and implementing
decisions, facts, explaining, predicting, preparing and making a
decision

112.

Explicative methods
• Content analysis - a systematic study of the content of a written or
spoken text with the recording of recurring phrases or plots (depends
on the correctness of their identification).
• Event analysis - "who says or does what, in relation to whom and
when" (data matrices)
• Cognitive mapping - leaders' perception of the problem and analysing
their actions (visits, etc.)
• Experiment (from natural sciences) - simulation games

113.

Prognostic methods
• Delphi method - systematic and controlled discussion by experts,
exploring the reasons for divergence and convergence of opinions
• Scenario building - ideal models of situation development based on
the analysis of the existing situation, selection of factors, hypotheses,
theory, projection
• Systems approach - "sociology of the world" analyses based on the
regularities of the system (structure)

114.

Foreign policy decision-making
"International political theory can tell us what pressures and opportunities the
structure of the international system puts on states, but it cannot tell us how the
units (states. - Auth.) will respond to those pressures and take advantage of the
opportunities." Waltz
• Decision process analysis - a dynamic dimension of the systems approach based on
determinants and variables
• The classic way:
• Definition of Decision Makers (DM)
• Exploring their preferences

115.

4 common approaches
• 1. Rational choice model based on national interest
• 2. the totality of government structures and their interaction
• 3. the result of bargaining between the participants in the process,
where everyone has their own preferences
• 4. decision of the LPR on the basis of incomplete and limited
information

116.

Foreign Policy
• Foreign policy is the concrete, practical implementation by the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (or a relevant department) of the basic
principles of the state's international policy, developed within its
broader structures and designed to reflect national interests.
• Unity of the basis, ultimate goal, resource base and subject of foreign
and domestic policy. Thus, taking into account internal factors when
analysing foreign policy decisions

117.

The problem of the relationship between
domestic and foreign policy
• For realists, they have the same essence (struggle for power) but are
different spheres of state activity. The GP is determined by national
interests.
• Marxism - the relationship is deterministic as the EP is determined by
economic relations in society
• Geopolitics is a complete given of geographical conditions.
• Neorealism - the GP is an extension of the internal, but this changes
nothing as the system and its dynamics are stronger
• Liberal views (incl. Rosenau) - close interconnection of domestic life and
international relations. Sphere spillover.

118.

Stages of the political process
• Incentives
• Political initiatives
• Expert discussion
• Public expertise
• Decision
• Implementation

119.

European integration in the TMO
It is important for study within the TMO because the experience of
European integration is so large and multifaceted that it has created
theoretical tools for studying and analysing integration as such
In international relations, integration is ALWAYS a political process with
political goals, even if carried out by economic means
Goal of States = common goal in IO and IO science - survival and peace
as a way of survival
Integration - a way to collectively make the world a profitable place

120.

The theory of European integration is based on a critical
reflection (historical-descriptive method) on the practice of
political and economic relations in (Western) Europe in the
period 1951 to the present day.
• Key points to know:
• The theory of integration (European integration in the first place) developed
as an offshoot of the theory of international relations.
• European integration theory studies the "political reality (space) of the EU" if
it is recognised as existing.
• The base for the development of the mega-theory of European integration
remained until recently the USA (main authors).
+ this was due to the special role of the USA in the emergence of European integration

121.

Continued (Europe)
• In Europe itself, the theory of European integration is developed mainly at the
micro-level.
• It was shaped by the basic tenets of TMO: realism and liberalism in their modern
(post-World War II) incarnations - neorealism and liberal institutionalism.
• European integration theory has been influenced by many other lateral branches of
TMO.
• Politically, the theory of European integration is divided into supranational
(supranational) and intergovernmental approaches.
• Supranational - central importance of integration institutions
• Intergovernmental - central importance of States
• Each approach emphasises different elements of integration practice: institutional
dynamics / state preferences, EU policy / treaty reforms, long term / short term,
process / events.

122.

Classical explanations of integration processes (in
Europe): federalism and functionalism.
• Federalist approach (political doctrine - views of Alterro Spinelli)
• The Second World War witnessed the loss of the right to sovereignty
by the national European states.
• The new unification of the countries of Western Europe was to finally
and formally abolish this sovereignty,
• But...giving rise to the new sovereignty of a pan-European federal
superstate with a policy independent of national political preferences.

123.

federalism
• The Federation must be the sole source of State sovereignty and the
disposer of its right to violence.
• According to the realist approach, such a federation takes the place of a
sovereign European state in a chaotic international environment. Thus,
the main question is about sovereignty and its transition to a new
quality (pan-European sovereignty instead of national sovereignty).
• At present, the need for a unified and strong foreign policy, which
alone can ensure the survival of a united Europe in a highly
competitive global environment, is one of the main arguments in
favour of moving towards a federalist model of EU development.

124.

The functionalist approach D. Mitrani and
his legacy. Jean Monnet's neo-functionalist
approach
1950s
• Liberal tradition as rational co-operation between states
• Realism as states are the main players and stakeholders.
• The world is getting more complex and the "old Leviathan" can't do all
the work anymore
• Certain functions are better dealt with at a level outside the traditional
state
• But... without infringing on its sovereignty in basic issues (security and
social policy)
• Moreover, integration strengthens sovereignty because it makes each
state stronger while preserving its independence

125.

functionalism
• Small business policy, functional integration, little attention to foreign policy,
spilover to other areas of public policy.
• The logic of gradual erosion of state sovereignty through functional integration in
certain areas or sectors of the economy did not have a direct continuation in the
sphere of foreign policy.
• The predominance of conventionally "lower" levels of politics in relations between
countries naturally reduces the area of "big" politics and eventually reduces it to
nothing, including foreign policy activities of the association to a set of "small
affairs" carried out from a new common centre.
• The formation of a common European foreign policy can only take place as a result
of natural integration processes and cannot be realised by a single political
decision of the participants.

126.

Definition of integration
• Regional integration (according to functionalists) - collective
management and material interdependence develop a special
internal dynamic, the expressors of which are functionally oriented
agencies. This dynamic forms an environment in which there is no
room for nationalism and aggression. Thus, peace between nations the main goal of politics - is achieved.

127.

European integration in the light of realist
and liberal theories of international
relations.
• Classical approaches (federalism and functionalism) to the theory of
European integration are considered too Eurocentric and do not take
into account the general principles of states' behaviour in the
international arena.
• The European integration process has always been analysed within the
debate between realist and liberal approaches to international relations.
• At the same time, the main issue of this debate - the role of the state
as the main source of sovereign rights - has traditionally been raised
both in relation to the internal structure of the European integration
association and its external relations.

128.

From the perspective of traditional realist understandings of international
relations, of which international relations within the EU subsystem are a part,
• Sovereign states, which remain the main and, in fact, the only players,
build rivalry relations among themselves, including within the
framework of the EU interstate structures.
• Their ability to pursue truly unified policies is limited by persistent
competition and latent rivalries within the community.
• In some cases, the EU acts as an advanced form of interstate union.

129.

realism
• Individual states, (in our case EU member states), are completely
independent players that do not recognise supreme authority over
themselves and maintain a chaotic state of the global or regional
international environment.
• In the sphere of external relations, sovereign states are completely
independent in determining their priorities and preferences; they
cannot be controlled from outside, or seek to destroy such control.
• There is thus no political reality other than the autonomous foreign
policy of a sovereign state.

130.

From the perspective of a liberal approach to analysing
international relations, including those developing within the
European integration process:
• Relations within the integration (EU) remain international.
• Formal and informal networks arising in the process of co-operation between
EU member states, although not decisive, act as a constraint
• And even lead to the emergence of a certain independent political reality,
including in the sphere of foreign relations.
• These links may be the result of the democratisation of political and foreign
policy activities in the countries of Europe, the processes of which have been
steadily gaining momentum since the end of the Second World War.
• Although sovereign European states retain their leadership role, their political
elites can no longer pursue foreign policy in isolation from society and its
representatives.

131.

Liberalism and integration
• In addition, within the processes of regional globalisation of economic
and spiritual life, potentially destructive manifestations of sovereignty
(aggression for the sake of winning elections, for example) are bound by
established economic ties and interdependencies.
• Within the framework of this relationship, new actors in international
relations are emerging in Europe, with their own legitimacy and forming
more stable bases of trust between countries than before, which
nevertheless remain the main players.
• One of such players, not subject to the traditional diseases of sovereign
state behaviour, are the institutions of European integration.

132.

Institutionalism - historical institutionalism
• In the view of the supporters of alternative (in relation to the classical - realism and
liberalism) approaches - institutionalist:
• The EU institutions, although they do not receive part of their sovereign rights from
the member states, can qualitatively influence their foreign policy behaviour through
participation in interest alignment mechanisms.
• EU member states themselves adapt their foreign policy according to collectively
established rules.
• A process of Europeanisation is taking place, to the content and current state of
which we will turn below.
• A phenomenon is emerging where the institutions of European integration and their
policies are seen by member states as a certain independent and less subject to
national domestic political conjunctures as a carrier of values.

133.

European integration (continued)
• Supporting the activities of such institutions, including in the foreign policy area, is
seen by countries as a way to protect themselves from possible destructive
manifestations of domestic policy and its conjuncture in the broader European
arena.
• EU institutions, while remaining independent from member states and nontraditional players, influence the behaviour of states within the EU subsystem.
• The institutions of European integration play the role of an external factor in
shaping the policies of sovereign member states and thus exert an influence on
them that in some cases can become decisive.
• Sovereign European states can no longer be regarded as fully independent due to
the fact that they are forced to take into account the interests and actions of a
non-state actor - Brussels - when determining their policies within the EU.