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Revision. Exam Structure
1. Business Ethics P13601
DR. ‘ALIM J. BEVERIDGEREVISION
2.
Revision3. Exam Structure
Exam will have one section with 5 essay questionsYou are required to answer 2 out of the 5 questions
Each question is worth 50%
Both are long essay question: around 1-2 pages
Make sure to answer all parts of the question!
90 minutes available
4. Core Topics
What is Business Ethics? (Lecture 1)Why has it become more important in recent year?
Ethical theories (prescriptive) (Lecture 2)
How can we know right from wrong?
Utilitarianism, Deontology (Kantian duty ethics),
Confucianism
5. Core Topics
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) (Lecture 3)What are the responsibilities of the firm?
Moral vs. instrumental arguments for CSR
Arguments against CSR
Stakeholder analysis & engagement (Lecture 6)
Who are the stakeholders of the firm?
Which stakeholders should a firm’s managers pay attention to?
Stakeholder analysis
Stakeholder management/engagement
6. Core Topics
Behavioral ethics (descriptive) (Lecture 9)Why do people and organizations engage in wrongdoing?
New vs. traditional perspective
Business ethics management (Lecture 10)
How can organizations prevent unethical behavior and
encourage ethical behavior?
Fostering moral virtue (Lecture 10)
Why do some individuals (and companies) avoid wrongdoing
and/or engage in doing good?
How can we strengthen the impulse to do good in individuals
and organizations?
7. Applied Topics
Business ethics as applied to each of the followingstakeholder groups:
1. Shareholders (Lecture 4)
2. Consumers (Lecture 5)
3. Suppliers and Competitors (Lecture 7)
4. Civil Society (Lecture 8)
8. Recurring Themes
Doing good vs. doing no harmMoral and instrumental (pragmatic, strategic)
considerations
Changing values and attitudes =
changing societal demands on companies +
new opportunities for companies
9. Seminar Topics
Seminar 1:Cross-cultural ethics
Ethical theories
Ethics of gift-giving/bribery
Seminar 2:
Issue and stakeholder analysis
Labor issues and Global supply chains
Group presentation:
Issue and stakeholder analysis
10. Course Objectives
Bloom’s Taxonomy (updated)11. Question Format
Some questions ask you to apply a core topic to aspecific case
In 2015 German car manufacturer Volkswagen (VW)
was forced to admit to installing devices in millions of
its cars during the previous seven years that allowed
them to pass emissions tests despite releasing amounts
of harmful polluting gases that far surpassed legal
limits.
If the board of directors of VW asks you to recommend
company policies and practices that would ensure that
such misconduct is prevented in the future, what
recommendations would you give? Justify your
recommendations.
12. Question Format
Some questions are directly about one of the appliedtopics
Discuss the advantages and drawbacks of using a
standardized CSR reporting format, such as the one
provided by the United Nations Global Compact,
from the point of view of the adopting company.
Support your key arguments by providing relevant
examples.
13. Question Format
Some questions require a comparison betweenseveral perspectives or an analysis from several
different perspectives
Imagine a company buys the only medicine
available to fight a serious disease and raises its
price from RMB 200 a bottle to RMB 15,000 a
bottle. In the world’s poorest countries many people
die of this disease every year. Discuss whether this
is ethical from the view point of three ethical
theories: Kantian deontology, utilitarianism and
Confucianism. Justify your answers.
14. Question Format
Many questions have more than one partMany foreign banks in China, such as JP Morgan Chase,
operate a “Sons and Daughters” program which gives
preference in hiring decisions to the sons and daughters
of government officials and the managers of stateowned enterprises (SOEs). The program’s purpose is to
gain favourable treatment from government agencies
and lucrative deals from SOEs.
Critically discuss at least three rationalizations HR
managers in these banks may have used to make their
actions ethically acceptable to themselves.
Critique each rationalization and provide a counterargument for each.
15. A Quality Response
Covers the question without including irrelevantcontent
Shows clear understanding and use of pertinent
concepts
All parts of the question are answered
Arguments are supported with examples or relevant
references
Incorporates appropriate materials from lectures,
seminars and readings
16.
Lecture 1:Business Ethics
17. What is Business Ethics?
According to the textbook:“Business ethics is the study of business
situations, activities, and decisions where issues of
right and wrong are addressed.”
Our module deals with the ethics of the actions and
decision of:
Companies
Individuals
within
companies
Corporate Social
Responsibility
18. An Ethical Hierarchy
Desirable butDiscretionary
Minimum
Obligatory
Do
Good
Do no
Harm
Obey
the Law
19.
Chapter 2:Ethical Theories and
Business Ethics
20. Key Readings
Arnold & Bowie, 2003. Sweatshops and respectfor persons
Chan, 2007. The relevance and value of
Confucianism in contemporary business ethics
21. Other Ethical Theories
ConsequencesAct / Motivation Actor
Utilitarianism
Deontology
Virtue Ethics
Mill
Kant
Confucius
22. Utilitarianism
Is concerned with consequencesThe General Principle:
‘An action is morally right if it results in the greatest
amount of good for the greatest amount of people
affected by the action.’
The simple and easy way to understand
utilitarianism is as a cost-benefit approach to ethics
Utilitarianism is not egoism!
Rule utilitarianism and act utilitarianism often lead
to different conclusions (but not always)
23. Act vs. Rule Utilitarianism
Act utilitarianism considers only theconsequences of a single act
Rule utilitarianism looks at a class of actions and
asks whether in principle it produces the greatest
amount of good for the greatest amount of people
24. Ethics of Duty (Deontology)
Focuses on defining theCategorical Imperative: An
ethical theory or law our acts
must conform to under all
conditions
Consequences don’t matter; but
intentions do
Intrinsic worth or dignity of all
persons; therefore should be
respected
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
25. Kant’s Three Maxims
Consistency – Apply the same standard to youraction that you would to others’. Don’t make an
exception for yourself.
Respect for human dignity – Don’t use others. Treat
them as an end not as a means.
Universal acceptability – Act only as you would if
your actions were known to all.
These are different formulations of one categorical
imperative, according to Kant.
BUT still may lead to different conclusions.
26. Confucian Ethics
Strong focus on cultivating self and being virtuous –Ultimate goal is to become a jūnzǐ (君子)
Core Confucian virtues (dé 德):
Rén (仁): compassion, benevolence,
humaneness
Yì (義): Sense of rightness, righteousness
Following Lǐ (禮
): norms, protocols,
etiquette, propriety
and also wisdom, reciprocity,
trustworthiness and filial piety
Confucius (孔子)
27. Confucian Ethics
Essence of rén = “Golden Rule”(1) weak form: “What you do not wish for
yourself, do not do to others.”
(2) strong form: “A man of benevolence, wishing
to establish his own character, also establishes the
character of others, and wishing to be prominent
himself, also helps others to be prominent.”
One must help others to develop morally to achieve
one’s own moral development
28. Confucian Ethics
How and why matter: Motives and the mannersomething is done is more important than what is
done
Profit-making is not bad unless done for selfish
reasons
Woods & Lamond, 2011
29. Question Example
Imagine a company buys the only medicineavailable to fight a serious disease and raises its
price from RMB 200 a bottle to RMB 15,000 a
bottle. In the world’s poorest countries many people
die of this disease every year. Discuss whether this
is ethical from the view point of three ethical
theories: Kantian deontology, utilitarianism and
Confucianism. Justify your answers.
30.
Lecture 3:Corporate Social
Responsibility
31. Key Readings
Friedman, 1970. The social responsibility ofbusiness is to increase its profits
Economist articles
Porter & Kramer, 2011. Creating shared value
Smith, 2003. Corporate social responsibility:
Whether or how?
32. Definitions
Corporate social responsibility:“The firm’s consideration of, and response to, issues
beyond the narrow economic, technical, and legal
requirements of the firm.” (Davis, 1973)
“Actions that appear to further some social good,
beyond the interests of the firm and that which is
required by law.” (McWilliam & Siegel, 2001)
33. The Debate over CSR Today
What is the corporation’s purpose and what are itsresponsibilities?
Maximize
Shareholder
Value
(Exclusively)
Serve the
Broader
Interests of
Society
(Beyond Profits)
From a dichotomy to a continuum.
The question now is not “Whether” but “How?” (or
“How much?”) (Smith, 2003)
34. Carroll’s Four-Part Model: The Pyramid of CSR
DoGood
Do No
Harm
Philanthropic
Responsibilities
Desired by society
Ethical
Responsibilities
Expected by society
Legal
Responsibilities
Required by
society
Economic
Responsibilities
Required by
society
35. Why should firms engage in CSR?
1. Moral arguments: pro-CSR arguments based onthe view that corporations have moral obligations
(“It’s the right thing to do”)
Normative view
2. Instrumental arguments: based on claims that
CSR leads to desirable outcomes, specifically
increased profits, for firms
“The business case for CSR”, pragmatic view, strategic
CSR, “profit-maximizing” CSR
36. Moral Arguments for CSR
Typically focus on accountability, reciprocity,obligation, and social contract
Driven by growing concern over dwindling natural
resources and environmental degradation:
Pollution, water contamination, over-population,
deforestation, climate change, etc.
And concern over social issues:
Poverty, inequality, slavery, forced labor, starvation,
health, human rights
37. Friedman’s Critique
“There is one and only onesocial responsibility of
business–to use it resources and
engage in activities designed to
increase its profits so long as it
stays within the rules of the
game, which is to say, engages
in open and free competition
without deception or fraud."
Three arguments against
CSR (especially against
moral arguments for CSR)
38. Instrumental Arguments for CSR
CSR “is good for business” (or it’s bad to ignore it)Changing expectations & radical transparency
Growing “conscious consumer” & LOHAS (Lifestyles
of Health and Sustainability) segments
Reputation
More attractive to employees and investors
Better relations with government
Cost reduction, risk management
New business opportunities
39. Critiques of Instrumental Arguments
Continues to prioritize profits above allCan lead to superficial CSR initiatives (“Window-
dressing”) or deception (“Greenwashing”)
What if there is no “Market for Virtue”? What
happens when there is a real conflict between profits
and the broader interests of society?
40.
Lecture 6:Stakeholder
Analysis &
Engagement
41. Stakeholder Relations
InterdependenceShareholders: increase
value of the firm &
make profits
Employees: Create
good products or
services &
receive income
Governments: Don’t
regulate extensively &
and receive taxes
The Firm and
its Managers
Suppliers: Supply high
quality inputs &
receive payment
Civil society (NGOs):
Don’t criticize or boycott
& achieve their goals
Customers: Purchase
products or services &
obtain value
42. Types of Stakeholders
PrimarySecondary
Which of all of these stakeholders should managers
pay attention to? And how should the company
engage with each?
Werther & Chandler (2010)
43. Processes of Stakeholder Management
Stakeholderassessment is the
process of
understanding
stakeholders and their
relationship to a specific
activity; it can be
subdivided into two
steps, stakeholder
identification and
stakeholder
prioritization.
Stakeholder
engagement is the
process of interaction
with stakeholders and
can be subdivided into
stakeholder
communication and the
co-creation of joint
activities.
44. Stakeholder Prioritization
Laasch & Conaway, 201545. Stakeholder Analysis
Based on Eden & Ackermann, 199846. Exam Question
Senior managers at an IT company in the United Statesdiscover through a newspaper report that several of
their suppliers in Country X employ forced labour. Now
a group of human rights NGOs are gathering signatures
for a shareholder resolution which would demand that
the company cease all sourcing from Country X because
of its oppressive government and terrible labour rights
record.
Identify the key stakeholder groups in this issue and
discuss the most likely position of each on the issue,
justifying your arguments.
From an instrumental view of CSR which stakeholders
should senior managers pay attention to and why?
47.
Lecture 9:Making Decisions in
Business Ethics:
Descriptive Ethics
48. Key Readings
Palmer, 2013. The new perspective onorganizational wrongdoing
Gioia, 1992. Pinto fires and personal ethics: A
script analysis.pdf
Also: Drumwright & Murphy, 2004
Also see videos (Concepts Unwrapped and In it to
Win by UT Austin) on Moodle
49. Behavioral Ethics
Why do people and organizations engage inwrongdoing?
How people make ethical decisions
Factors that influence ethical decision making
50. The New Perspective
Typical ViewNew View
Frequency
Rare
Prevalent
Misconduct (Act)
Clearly wrong
The line between right
and wrong can be blurry
Perpetrator
(Actor)
Malevolent or
immoral person
Ordinary person, even
morally upstanding
Organizational
Factors
A few, clearly flawed
structures, systems or
processes
Any number of structures,
systems and processes
that are generally healthy
and functioning well
Palmer, 2013
51. Rest’s Model of Ethical Decision Making
Individual factorsRecognise
Moral
Issue
Make
Moral
Judgement
Establish
Moral
Intent
Contextual factors
Engage
in Moral
Behaviour
Rest, 1986
52. Rational Decision Making or Not?
An emerging view holds that ethical decision makingis often automatic, impulsive and unconscious
(ethical impulse perspective) rather than rational
(ethical calculus perspective)
This view is also known as bounded ethicality
53. An Interactive Model
IndividualsSituation
National Culture
System
54. Nested Systems
National/regional culture, religion,legal system: values, beliefs
Professional culture, education
Organizational culture, rewards
systems, formal and informal
structures of relationships and
power
Situational cues can activate
“mental programming” and
programmed behavior associated
with certain systems (or not)
Situation
55. Human Nature According to Social Psychology
“Man is by nature a social animal” – AristotleSocial psychology: human beings have evolved to
harmoniously live in groups
We are therefore good at cooperating, following
rules, observing others, conforming to group
behavior, expectations and norms
Power & authority (Milgram’s experiments)
Social influence processes
Group & organizational factors
56. Moral Recognition
One key issue is whether the person realizes he orshe is faced with an ethical decision
Also known as Moral awareness
Recognise
Moral
Issue
Make
Moral
Judgement
Establish
Moral
Intent
Social & Cognitive Factors
Engage
in Moral
Behaviour
Rest, 1986
57. Moral Muteness & Myopia
Moral Muteness & MyopiaMoral muteness: When someone recognizes an
issue has an ethical dimension but remains silent
and avoids confronting the ethics of the issue
Moral myopia: Distortion of moral vision, leading
to difficulty of recognizing ethical issues or seeing
them clearly
Moral muteness can lead to moral myopia
Moral myopia can also occur due to
rationalization
There are many cognitive biases and situational
factors that can lead to moral myopia
58. Moral Intensity
Issue-specific factors that can influence moralawareness:
1. Magnitude of consequences
2. Social consensus
3. Probability of effect
4. Temporal immediacy
5. Proximity (social, cultural, psychological or
physical) and
6. Concentration of effect
Jones, 1991
59. Rationalization Tactics
Rationalizations serve to convince the actor thattheir actions are not unethical through excuses or
justifications.
Denial of responsibility
“I didn’t do it”, “I had no choice”, “None of my business”
Denial of injury
“No one was really harmed”, “It could have been worse”
Denial of victim
“They deserved it”, “They chose to participate”
Social weighting
“You have no right to judge us”, “Others are worse than we
are”
Anand, Ashforth & Joshi, 2004
60. Rationalization Tactics
Appeal to higher loyalties“We answer to a higher cause”
Moral equilibrium (or Moral licensing , aka
“Metaphor of the ledger”)
Good deeds excuse wrongdoing
“Start small” (Zimbardo)
Rationalizations can be used before the act
(prospective) or after (retrospective)
Prospective rationalization can lead to moral myopia
Retrospective rationalization helps reduce
misgivings and feelings of guilt Anand, Ashforth & Joshi, 2004
61. Exam Question
Many foreign banks in China, such as JP Morgan Chase,operate a “Sons and Daughters” program which gives
preference in hiring decisions to the sons and daughters
of government officials and the managers of stateowned enterprises (SOEs). The program’s purpose is to
gain favourable treatment from government agencies
and lucrative deals from SOEs.
Critically discuss at least three rationalizations HR
managers in these banks may have used to make their
actions ethically acceptable to themselves.
Critique each rationalization and provide a counterargument for each.
62.
Lecture 10:Business Ethics
Management
63. Key Readings
Zhang, Gino & Bazerman, 2014. Moralityrebooted: Exploring simple fixes to our moral
bugs
64. What is business ethics management?
Business ethics management is the directattempt to formally or informally manage ethical
issues or problems through specific policies,
practices and programmes
64
Dr. Ulf Henning Richter
65. Typical Components
Mission or values statementsCodes of ethics
Reporting/advice channels
Risk analysis and management
Ethics managers, officers and committees
Ethics consultants
Ethics education and training
Stakeholder consultation, dialogue and
partnership programs
Auditing, accounting and reporting
66. Codes of Ethics
A Code of Ethics is only effective if properlyimplemented and enforced, e.g. through:
Communication and training
Disciplinary actions
Whistleblowing mechanism
HR practices and policies (e.g., hiring, performance
assessment)
Ethics committee or officer
Monitoring, auditing and reporting
67.
Meta-analyticresults from
Kish-Gephert,
Harrison &
Trevino, 2010
68. Codes of Ethics
Source: KPMG 200869. Ethical Climate & Culture
Ethical Climate & CultureEthical climate consists of shared beliefs about
“what constitutes right behavior” in an organization
Ethical culture refers to the organization’s formal
and informal “systems, procedures, and practices for
guiding and supporting ethical behavior” especially
through the communication of “behavioral and
accountability expectations” (Kish-Gephert et al
2010).
Emerges from rules and procedures, reward
structures, among other things
Also leadership behaviors
70. Leadership
Leaders set the ethical tone in organizationsBeing an ethical leader involves being a moral
person and a moral manager
A moral person is someone who possesses a good
character and displays virtues (honesty,
trustworthiness, concern for others, etc.)
A moral manager sets ethical standards,
communicates expectations and holds others in the
organization accountable to those standards and
expectations (Trevino & Brown, 2004)
71. Types of Factors
Formal vs. informalStructure-oriented (extrinsic) vs. values-oriented
(intrinsic)
Many approaches focus on one only
Problem: lack of alignment, inconsistencies,
contradictions
An integrative approach tends to be more effective
72. Exam Question
In 2015 German car manufacturer Volkswagen(VW) was forced to admit to installing devices in
millions of its cars during the previous seven years
that allowed them to pass emissions tests despite
releasing amounts of harmful polluting gases that
far surpassed legal limits.
If the board of directors of VW asks you to
recommend company policies and practices that
would ensure that such misconduct is prevented in
the future, what recommendations would you give?
Justify your recommendations.
73.
Fostering IndividualMoral Virtue
74.
Meta-analyticresults from
Kish-Gephert,
Harrison &
Trevino, 2010
75. Your Beliefs and Values
What you believe mattersLocus of control
Idealist vs. relativist moral philosophy
Idealist moral philosophy: Individual’s belief
that a “right” choice, especially one that avoids harm
to others, exists in every situation
Principled vs. expedient ethical ideology
76. Integrity
Integrity is a “steadfast commitment” to one’svalues or principle and to acting in ways that are
consistent with these
Associated with a principled ethical ideology
Reduces propensity to morally disengage and
rationalize
Leads to more helping behavior (like volunteering)
and less unethical behavior (like lying, cheating, etc.)
Linked to more self-esteem, meaning in life, and
empathy toward other, and less materialism
77. Moral Imagination
Definition:“Articulating and examining alternatives, weighing
them and their probable implications, considering
their effects on one’s other plans and interests, and
considering their possible effects on the interests and
feelings of others’’ (Jacobs, 1991: pp. 25)
The ability to think “outside the box”, get beyond
seeing only two choices, and generate creative ethical
alternatives or solutions
Also linked to principled ethical ideology
78. Conclusions
Commitment to moral self-improvementHave strong values, know what you believe in or
stand for
Have others you can talk to about your values
Talk to others about ethical issues or problems
Mind the company you keep (the influence of peers,
friends and colleagues, and organizational culture)
Work on your self-control and empathy
Try a creative problem solving approach
79.
Other Topics80. Corporate Governance
How can shareholders be victims of unethicalbehavior?
What is the purpose of corporate governance?
Reasons why corporate governance arrangements
fail too work
81. Corporate Governance Reforms
In the wake of alarming corporate scandals, CGreforms have been introduced in the US and most
European countries. These tend to focus on:
Separation of CEO and Chairman positions (often
recommended but not required)
Number or proportion of independent outside
directors
Independence of audit committee
Independence of compensation committee
Disclosure of compensation
But CG problems persist. Why?
82. Ethical Issues in Marketing
Area of marketingProduct policy
Marketing
management
Some common ethical
problems
Main rights involved
Product safety
Fitness for purpose
Right to safety
Marketing
Deception
communications Misleading claims
Intrusiveness
Promotion of materialism
Creation of artificial wants
Perpetuating dissatisfaction
Reinforcing stereotypes
Right to information
Right to privacy
Pricing
Excessive pricing
Price fixing
Predatory pricing
Deceptive pricing
Right to fair prices
Distribution
Buyer-seller relationships
Gifts and bribes
Slotting fees
Right of access
Right to choose
83. Consumer Sovereignty Test
DimensionDefinition & Key Questions
Sample criteria for
establishing adequacy
Consumer
capability
Freedom from limitations
in rational decision making
Is the target market vulnerable in
ways that limit consumer decision
making?
Vulnerability factors, e.g.
age,
education, health
Information
Availability and quality of
Quantity, comparability and
relevant data
complexity of information;
Are consumer expectations at
degree of bias or deception
purchase likely to be realized? Do
consumers have sufficient information
to judge?
Choice
Opportunity to switch
Number of competitors and
Can consumers go elsewhere? Would level of competition;
they incur substantial costs or
switching costs
inconveniences in transferring their
loyalty?
84. Social Issues in Marketing
Concerns that marketing communications:Are intrusive and unavoidable
Create artificial wants
Reinforce consumerism and materialism
Create insecurity and perpetual dissatisfaction
Perpetuate social stereotypes
Cause-related marketing
85. Greenwashing
Source (text and pictures): Futerra (2008) The Greenwash Guide”,www.futerra.co.uk
86. Ethics and Supply Chains
87. Ethical Sourcing
Often involves collective action and multistakeholder collaboration
Government-led initiatives: Kimberley Process
Industry-led initiatives: Accord on Fire and Building
Safety in Bangladesh
Company-led initiatives: Intel and conflict minerals
Business-NGO (CSO) partnerships: Marine
Stewardship Council
CSO-led initiatives: Fairtrade
88. Supply Loops
(a) Linear flow of resourcesExtraction
Manufacture
(b) Circular flow of
resources
Distribution
Extraction
Consumption
Manufacture
Product
recapture
Distribution
Consumption
Disposal
Disposal
89. Civil Society
What is the role of the civil society sector?Types of CSOs
CSO Tactics:
Indirect action
Violent direct action
Non-violent direct action
90. Ethical Challenges for CSOs
CSO accountabilityDo CSOs truly listen to their beneficiaries and
represent their concerns?
Do CSOs disseminate accurate and complete
information? Or do they engage in deception?
Do CSOs use their funds responsibly? (Issues:
embezzlement and corruption, CEO pay, etc.)
Do CSOs really try to solve the problems they claim
to solve?
“Who watches the Watchmen?”
91. The Nonmarket Environment
What is the nonmarket environment? How doesit differ from the market environment?
Why is it important?
(Baron, 1995)
92.
Integrating Market and NonmarketStrategy
Market
(competitive)
Analysis
Market
Nonmarket
Analysis
Management
Strategy
Integrated Strategy
Nonmarket
Strategy
Implementation
Positioning
Market
Environment
Nonmarket
Environment
(Baron, 1995)
93. Business-NGO Partnerships
Traditionally the relationship between promotionalCSOs (NGOs) and firms has been an antagonistic
one
In recent years, firms and NGOs have tried
partnering instead
Oxfam and Marks & Spencer
Unilever and Oxfam
Coca-Cola and WWF
UNICEF & P&G (Pampers)
94.
What is Social Entrepreneurship?“Social entrepreneurship is the process of
recognizing and relentlessly pursuing
opportunities to create social value.”
(Center for the Advancement of Social Entrepreneurship,
Duke University)
95. Key differences between social enterprise, CSOs & corporations
Key differences between socialenterprise, CSOs & corporations
Social Enterprise
Civil society
organization
Corporation
Aims
Social and economic
value creation
Social value creation
Economic value creation
Role of profit
Profit earning; limits on
profit distribution
Nonprofit making
Profit maximising
Activities
Production and trade of
social goods and
services
Production of social
goods and services,
campaigning, advocacy,
research, grant-giving,
etc
Production and trade of
goods and services
Funding
Self-funding (at least
partially)
Grants, donations, or
membership dues
Self-funding
Governance
Based on participation
and democracy amongst
stakeholders
Based on participation
and democracy amongst
stakeholders
Based on accountability
to providers of capital
Sources: Dees (1998); Defourny and Nyssens (2006); Nicholls (2006)
96.
Conclusion97. Final Notes
Make sure you write clearly – always good if themarker is able to read your answer
Make sure you answer the question – think
carefully what the essence of the question is
Pay attention to details. Some questions have
sub-parts. Address them all.
Good luck with the preparations and the exam
98.
THANK YOUand
GOOD LUCK!