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The process of writing

1.

Chapter 3
The Writing Process
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4|1

The process of writing
1. Audience analysis: Studying the needs,
experiences, personality, and other aspects.
2. Planning: Specify the purpose of your message.
What information you need to give the reader to
achieve your purpose, and in what order to
present the information.
3. Drafting: Compose a first draft of your message.
4. Revising: Revise for content, style, and
correctness.
5. Formatting and proofreading: Arrange
documents in a standard format, and check
content, typographical, and format errors.
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3.

Audience Analysis
1. An audience analysis identifies the interests,
needs, and personality of your receiver so you
can maximize the effectiveness of your
message.
2. Determine the level of detail, the language
to be used, and the overall tone by answering
these questions:
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4.

Who is the primary audience?
If you have multiple audiences, you need to
identify the primary audience-the person whose
cooperation is critical if your message is going
to achieve its objectives-and your secondary
audience-those who also are affected by the
topic of the message. Even if you are able to
satisfy no one else, try to satisfy the needs of
your primary audience.
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5.

What is your relationship with the
audience?
If your audience does not know you, you have
to establish credibility through tone and
supporting evidence. Communications to
superiors will probably be organized in a direct
style, whereas communications to subordinates
should attempt to develop a sense of
collaboration.
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6.

How will the audience react?
If the reader’s initial reaction to both you and
your topic is likely to be positive
If the reader’s initial reaction is likely to be
neutral
If your reader’s initial reaction is likely to be
negative.
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7.

What does the audience already
know?
Evaluating the primary audience’s present level
of understanding is critical to making decisions
about content and writing style.
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8.

What is unique about the audience?
Learn about the reader’s interests,
demographic characteristics, level of formality
expected, and the like. Use this information to
structure the content, organization, and tone of
the message.
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9.

Persuasive appeals are based on
• Ethos:
1. Ethical appeal based on your credibility-who you
are and how your audience perceives you.
2. Used frequently by advertisers-as with celebrity
endorsements.
• Pathos:
1. Appeals to audience emotions.
2. Used in “what-if” situations designed to make
the audience happy, sad, or scared.
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10.

• Logos: Logic
1. Appeals based on logic-the most effective form
of persuasion-by presenting facts (indisputably
true), inferences (probably true), and opinion
(possibly true).
2. The more factual data you can bring to bear on
your position, the more likely you are to
persuade.
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11.

What would you do?
• You are aware that there are employees in your
group who have not learned how to use the new
software program adopted by your firm. They
underwent training sessions but are resisting
the new procedures. At the last training session
to which they were to bring their questions,
there were many gripes and complaints and
very few questions.
How do you handle the next session?
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12.

Motivation at Finagle A Bagel
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13.

Remember this
about your audience
No one is perfect.
People need specific information.
Most people are honest and reasonable.
People don’t like to be “talked down to.”
People want to know what they will gain by
taking action.
• Most people are likely to react to your message
the same way you would if you had received it.
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14.

Maslow’s Hierarchy
of Needs Theory
Source: Data for diagram drawn from A. H. Maslow, “A Theory of Human Motivation,” Psychological Review, 50 (July 1943): 370-396.
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15.

Planning
Purpose
1. The first decision you must make relates to the
purpose of your message. If you do not know what you
hope to accomplish by writing a message, then you
have no way of knowing whether you have achieved
your goal.
2. Most writers find it easier to start with a general
purpose and then refine the general purpose into a
specific objective-the response they want from their
readers.
3. Having a clear-cut statement of purpose lets you
focus on the content and organization, on eliminating
distracting information, and on incorporating all relevant
information.
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16.

Purpose of a routine request
General: To determine whether the laser printer
has the features I need.
Specific: To get answers
to four specific questions.
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17.

Purpose of a persuasive message
General: To secure
permission for my preschool
students to tour a restaurant
and have lunch.
Specific: To secure
permission for my preschool
students to tour Salad Haven
Restaurant and have lunch
between 11 a.m. and 1 p.m.
(its busiest time).
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18.

Content
1. The next step is to determine what
information to include in the message.
2. The trick is to include enough information so
that you do not lose the reader, yet avoid
including irrelevant details that waste time and
obscure important data.
3. Start with at least a rudimentary outline of
your message.
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19.

4. A useful strategy is brainstorming-jotting
down ideas, facts, possible leads, and anything
else you think might be helpful in constructing
your message. Aim for quantity, not quality.
5. Another strategy is mind mapping, or
clustering, a process that avoids the sequential
limitations of lists. Write the objective of your
message in the middle of a page and circle it.
As you think of points to add, simply pencil
them in, linking them by a line either to the
main objective or to another point.
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20.

Organization
1. The final step in the planning process is
organization, determining the order of
discussion. The result is an outline you can use
to draft your message into its most effective
form.
2. Classification-grouping related ideas-is the
first step in outlining a message.
3. By differentiating between major and minor
points, you line up minor ideas and evidence to
support the major ideas.
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21.

4. If you expect a positive response, use a
direct approach: present your conclusion first
and then the reasons for that conclusion. If you
expect a negative response, use an indirect
approach: present your reasons first and then
your conclusion.
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22.

Drafting
1. The most important thing to remember
about drafting is to just let go-let your ideas
flow as fast as possible onto paper or computer
screen. Do not worry about style, correctness,
or format. Do not expect perfection, and do not
strive for it.
2. Separate the drafting stage from the
revising stage. Remember that “writing is art”
and “rewriting is craft”.
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23.

3. Writer’s block is the inability to focus on the
writing process and draft a message. Some
causes of writer’s block include procrastination,
impatience, and perfectionism. There are
several strategies for overcoming writer’s block.
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24.

Writing your first draft
Avoid writer’s block
Choose the right environment.
Schedule a reasonable block of time.
State your purpose in writing.
Engage in free writing.
Avoid the perfectionist syndrome.
Think out loud.
Write the easiest parts first.
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25.

a. Choose the right environment. The ability to
concentrate on a task is critical.
b. Schedule a reasonable period of time. If the
writing task is short, you can schedule enough
time to plan, draft, and revise the entire
message. If the task is long or complex,
however, you should not plan to work on it for
more than two hours at a time.
c. State your purpose in writing. Jot it down
and keep it visible so that it will be uppermost
in your consciousness as you write.
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26.

d. Engage in free writing. Write continuously
for 5 to 10 minutes, literally without stopping,
and then take a break. Read what you have
written, and then start again if necessary.
e. Avoid the perfectionism syndrome. The first
product you generate is just a draft.
f. Think out loud. Picture telling a colleague
about what you are writing, and explain aloud
the ideas you are trying to get across. Hearing
your ideas helps sharpen and focus them.
g. Write the easiest parts first. Getting
something down on paper will get you started.
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27.

Procrastination
Procrastination is a habit. A week or two before
a deadline, try these techniques instead:
• Pretend your first draft is an essay exam. Set a timer,
consult your outline, and write.
• Set small goals for yourself (e.g., prepare the outline,
write first paragraph). Reward yourself for each
completed goal.
• Imagine that you have to give an oral presentation on
your subject. You have 10 minutes to get the main
points across coherently. Begin!
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28.

Revising
Revising is the process of modifying a draft to
increase its effectiveness. If possible, put your
draft away for a time. If you revise immediately,
the memory of what you meant to say is too
strong and may prevent you from seeing
weaknesses in logic or diction.
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29.

Revising for Content
Ask yourself these questions:
1. Is the content appropriate for the purpose I have
identified?
2. Will the purpose of the message be clear to the
reader?
3. Have I been sensitive to the needs of the reader?
4. Is all the information necessary?
5. Is any needed information missing?
6. Is the order of presentation of the topics effective?
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30.

Revising for Style
1. Read each paragraph again (preferably
aloud), evaluating as you read.
2. Reading aloud gives you a feel for the
rhythm and flow of your writing.
3. Have a friend read your draft, and use that
feedback to identify areas that need revision.
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31.

Revising for Correctness
1. Editing involves checking for correctnessthat is, identifying problems with grammar,
spelling, punctuation, and word usage.
2. Editing follows revision because there is no
need to correct minor errors in passages that
may be revised or deleted.
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32.

Formatting
1. Letter styles. Block style is the simplest
letter style to type because all the lines begin at
the left margin. Modified-block style is also
acceptable; the date and closing lines begin at
the center point, enabling the reader to locate
each part quickly. Simplified style is seldom
used. All lines begin at the left margin, the
salutation and complimentary closing are
omitted, and the subject line and
writer’sidentification are typed in capital letters.
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33.

2. Punctuation styles. Standard punctuation,
the most common format, uses a colon (never
a comma) after the salutation and a comma
after the complimentary closing. Open
punctuation style favors no punctuation after
these two lines.
3. Stationery and margins. Specific guidelines
are presented in the textbook for standard
business stationery and appropriate margins
for documents.
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34.

4. Required letter parts. Required letter parts
include a date line, the inside address, a
salutation, the body, a page heading, the
complimentary closing, the signature, the
writer’s identification, and reference initials.
5. Optional letter parts. Optional letter parts
include a subject line, enumerations in the body,
an enclosure notation, a copy notation, and a
postscript.
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35.

Standard letter format
January 19, 2008
4
Center page
vertically and
use default
margins.
Ms. Ella Shore, President
Department of Journalism
Mountainside College
Great Falls, MT 59404 2
Dear Ms. Shore:
2
Subject: Yearbook Advertising
2
Thank you for thinking of The Book Mark when you were planning the
advertising for next year’s yearbook at Mountainside College. We
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36.

from taking a full-page ad, we are happy to purchase a quarter-page ad, as
follows: 2
• The ad should include our standard trademark and the words “Welcome to
The Book Mark.” 2
• The ad should appear in the top-right corner of a right-facing page. 2
Our logo is enclosed for you to duplicate. I am also enclosing a check for $275.
Best wishes as you prepare the fifty-fifth edition of your yearbook.
Sincerely,
2
4
Joseph W. Dye
Sales Manager
2
rmt
Enclosures
c: Advertising Supervisor
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37.

Formatting Memos
1. Memos can be typed on plain paper, on letterhead
stationery, or on special memo forms.
2. Use side and bottom margins of 1 to 1?inches and a
top margin of 2 inches.
3. When typing a memo on plain paper or letterhead
stationery, set a tab 10 spaces from the left margin to
align the variable heading information.
4. Double-space the lines of the heading, and leave 2
blank lines between the heading and the body of the
memo.
5. Standard parts of the heading include
TO:/FROM:/DATE:/SUBJECT.
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38.

6. Omit the salutation and closing lines, but
use special notations (reference initials,
enclosure notation, and copy notation).
7. Single-space the lines of the body of the
memo, and double-space between paragraphs.
8. Long memos sometimes contain report-type
headings as an aid to the reader.
9. The heading for the second page of a memo
is identical to that for a letter.
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39.

Standard memo format
Tab
MEMO TO: Max Dillon, Sales Manager
FROM:
Andrea J. Hayes 2
DATE:
February 25, 2008
SUBJECT:
New-Venture Proposal
2
3
2
Center page
vertically and
use default
margins.
I propose the purchase or lease of a van to be used as a mobile bookstore. We
could then use this van to generate sales in the outlying towns and villages
throughout the state. 2
We have been aware for quite some time that many small towns around the
state do not have adequate bookstore facilities, but the economics of the
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40.

Standard memo format (cont’d)
length of our stay to the size of the town and the amount of business
generated. 2
Please let me have your reactions to this proposal. If you wish, I can explore
the matter further and generate cost and sales estimates in time for your next
manager’s meeting. 2
jmc
Attachment
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41.

42.

. Proofreading
Proofreading is the final quality control check
for the document. Whether you key the material
or an assistant does, your name appears on
the message, and any mistakes are a reflection
on you.
a. Begin by proofing for content errors and
making certain the document makes sense.
b. Then read the document slowly, checking for
typographical errors.
c. Finally, review the formats.
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43.

The proofreading stage is not complete until
you have read the document through without
making any changes. There is always the
possibility that in correcting one error, you have
introduced another. After the final read-through,
you are ready to transmit the document.
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44.

45.

46.

Key terms
audience analysis 受众分析• organization 结构
• revising 修订
brainstorming 头脑风暴
• writer’s block 写作瓶颈
drafting 起草
editing 编辑
free writing 自由写作
mind mapping 思维导图
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47.

Exercise-Proofreading
1. April 31, 2007
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mr. Thomas Johnson, Manger
JoAnn @ Friends, Inc.
1323 Charleston Avenue
Minneapolis, MI 55402
6. Dear Mr. Thomas:
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48.

Proofreading (cont’d)
7. As a writing consultant, I have often aksed aud8. iences to locate all teh errors in this letter.
9. I am allways surprized if the find all the errors.
10.The result being that we all need more practical
11. advise in how to proof read.
12.To aviod these types of error, you must ensure that
13. that you review your documents carefully. I have
14. preparred the enclosed exercises for each of you
15. to in your efforts at JoAnne & Freinds, Inc.
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49.

Proofreading (cont’d)
16.Would you be willing to try this out on you own
17.workers and let me know the results.
18. Sincerly Yours
19. Mr. Michael Land,
20.Writing Consultant
[Enclosure]
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50.

51.

52.

Excersice
Identify the correct sequence of the steps in the writing
process.
a) drafting, brainstorming, audience analysis,
formatting, revising, proofreading
b) brainstorming, audience analysis, planning, revising,
proofreading, formatting
c) audience analysis, planning, drafting, revising,
formatting, proofreading
d) formatting, planning, audience analysis, drafting,
proofreading, revising
e) audience analysis, planning, drafting, proofreading,
revising, formatting
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53.

Excersice
Which advice about analyzing the audience reaction is
correct?
a) Regardless of the anticipated reader reaction, use
the indirect approach.
b) If the reader is likely to oppose your ideas, supply
additional evidence and supporting facts.
c) If the reader is likely to have a positive reaction, use
little jargon and strong persuasion.
d) If you expect the reader to react negatively to you,
prove that your colleagues strongly agree with you.
e) If you anticipate a neutral reaction, open your
message with your strongest point.
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54.

Excersice
What is the most important reason why you should
determine what your audience knows about the topic of
your message?
a) You can decide on personal touches that show
readers they are important.
b) You can anticipate whether the reader's reaction will
be positive or negative.
c) You can gain the cooperation of your colleagues in
presenting persuasive arguments.
d) You can move through the steps of the writing
process more quickly.
e) You can decide how much jargon to use and what
readability level is appropriate.
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55.

Excersice
Which persuasion appeal is based on the
reader's perception of the writer's credibility?
a) ethos
b) rhetoric
c) pathos
d) logos
e) indirect
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56.

Excersice
The message “To protect your most precious
belongings, install Secure-All dead bolt locks,”
uses what type of appeal?
a) ethos
b) rhetoric
c) indirect
d) pathos
e) logic
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57.

Excersice
Which form of persuasion is generally used in
business communication?
a) rhetorical appeal based on inferences
b) emotional appeal based on feelings
c) indirect appeal based on anticipated reaction
d) logical appeal based on fact
e) credibility appeal based on perceptions
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58.

Excersice
Which of the following statements about content is not
correct?
a) Brainstorming is often an effective method to
determine the content of your message.
b) Mind mapping produces a visual outline that allows
more flexibility than a step-by-step list.
c) Start writing immediately and decide about content
as you write.
d) Determine the content after identifying the purposes
and analyzing the audience.
e) Many communication tasks require a number of
decisions about content.
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59.

Excersice
Which of the following correctly describes the use of
brainstorming?
a) Strive for quantity of ideas, not quality of ideas.
b) Evaluate your output before you list your ideas.
c) Organize the ideas into categories as soon as
possible.
d) Refine, delete, and combine ideas at the start.
e) Arrange every idea in its proper sequence.
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60.

Excersice
Which step is not a part of the organization
process?
a) grouping related ideas together
b) matching the order to anticipated audience
response
c) differentiating major and minor points
d) determining the most effective sequence of
ideas
e) mind-mapping ideas into step-by-step lists
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61.

Excersice
An effective strategy for treating writer's block is to
a) schedule brief blocks of time to prepare a draft.
b) write the most difficult parts first to get them out of
the way.
c) strive for perfection now to save time during revision.
d) select an environment in which you can concentrate.
e) state your objective as simply as possible.
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62.

Excersice
When you use free writing, you are
a) allowing time to plan, draft, and revise a
message in one sitting.
b) brainstorming freely about a writing project.
c) deciding how freely to revise a first draft.
d) evaluating the results of your first draft as
freely as possible.
e) writing continuously for several minutes
without stopping.
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63.

Excersice
Which statement about revising is correct?
a) You should revise at the same that you draft a
message.
b) Wait to revise the message so you will have some
"distance" and can detect any weaknesses in logic.
c) When you revise a message, you are checking
content and style rather than editing.
d) If you revise before drafting, you will remember the
content you wanted to include.
e) Time constraints may prevent you from revising
every message.
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64.

Excersice
Editing is the process of
a) organizing the topics in a logical order.
b) correcting errors in spelling, punctuation, and
grammar.
c) shortening lengthy sentences and
paragraphs.
d) ensuring that the purpose is clear.
e) adapting the readability level.
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65.

Excersice
One good reason to format documents according to
accepted conventions is that
a) readers will be distracted if information is not where
they expect it to be.
b) many executives now keyboard their own
documents without assistance.
c) the person who types the message is responsible for
its format.
d) you can edit more easily if the parts of a message
are presented in consistent fashion.
e) you can add reader interest by varying the margins
and other formatting elements.
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66.

Excersice
Checking to be sure that your document makes
sense is proofreading for
a) content errors.
b) typographical errors.
c) format errors.
d) style errors.
e) technical errors.
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67.

Excersice
Explain how your expectations about the
reader's reaction influence the organization and
style of a message. Provide examples to
support your explanation.
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68.

69.

70.

What is wrong with
these sentences?
1. There to busy with they’re report to be their for
the hearing.
2. I will except your advise, but the affect of doing
so may bring alot of change.
3. Your going to present you’re report first.
4. Whose going to let us know who’s turn it is to
make coffee?
5. How much farther can we pursue this if its not
past on through regular channels?
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71.

Answers
1. They’re too busy with their report to be there
for the hearing.
2. I will accept your advice, but the effect of
doing so may bring a lot of change.
3. You’re going to present your report first.
4. Who’s going to let us know whose turn it is to
make coffee?
5. How much further can we pursue this if it’s not
passed on through regular channels?
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72.

One-sentence summary
• Ask “Who does what to whom, when, where,
how, and why?”
• Synthesize your answer into a single,
informative, grammatical, and long summary
sentence.
Source: Angelo, T. & Cross, K. P., Classroom Assessment Techniques. Jossy-Bass, San Francisco, 1993, p. 183
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73.

Excersice-audience Reaction
Read the following situations and decide what
the audience reaction would be and whether a
direct or indirect organizational plan would be
better. Explain your answer.
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74.

• Audience reaction
As the manager of a
would probably be
small retail clothing
positive; use a direct
store, you are
plan. The workers
preparing a memo to
would want to hear they
let the employees
are getting a raise.
know they are getting a
50-cent-per-hour raise.
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75.

As the assistant
manager of a hotel,
you are writing to a
customer letting her
know that the jewelry
she left in her room
when she departed
has not been found.
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• Audience reaction
would be
disappointment; use an
indirect plan. The
woman would be
disappointed to hear
her jewelry had not
been found.
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76.

• Audience reaction would
As a newly hired
probably be somewhat
advertising director,
negative; use an indirect
you are e-mailing the
plan. You would probably
need to show the president
president of the
how the company would
company requesting a
benefit from the increased
10 percent increase in
advertising budget. He or
she might not be overly
your advertising
pleased to have a new
budget.
person asking for a larger
budget. (Some supervisors
want information “up
front”regardless of the
message).
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77.

You are writing a letter • Audience reaction
would probably be
to customers
neutral; use a direct
announcing a new
plan. You are informing
produce that will be
the customers about a
available in the store
product, not necessarily
starting next month.
trying to sell it.
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78.

Excersice-ethos, pathos and logos
You and a partner are working for an
advertising firm. You have recently landed the
account for a national tire company. You know
about three appeals for persuasion : ethos,
pathos and logos. You decide to write three
television commercials for the tire companyeach using one of these appeals. Explain how
you might use each appeal in a television
commercial for tires.
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79.

Excersice-audience analysis
Assume you must write an email message to
your business communication professor, asking
him or her to let you take your final examination
one week early so that you can attend your
cousin’s wedding.
A. Perform an audience analysis of your
professor. List everything you know about this
professor that might help you compose a more
effective message.
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80.

Excersice
B. Write two good opening sentences for this
message, the first on assuming that you are a
student who has missed class only once this
term and the second assuming you are a
student who has missed class six times this
term.
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81.

Excersice-free writing
You are the office manager for station WFYI,
the nonprofit National Public Radio affiliate in
Indianapolis. You want to buy as scanner to
use with the three computers in you office. The
scanner would let you input graphics into your
computer documents and enter data without
having to rekey it.
You must wirte a memo, the goal of which is to
convince the general manager to let you buy a
scanner and related software. Think about
ways you could use this equipment.
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