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Energy Storage and Conversion CHE.524

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Energy Storage and Conversion CHE.524
Prof. Dr. Viktor Hacker
Institut für Chemische
Verfahrenstechnik und Umwelttechnik
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Repetition
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World Energy Outlook
The World Energy Outlook does not provide a forecast
of what will happen. Instead, it provides a set of
scenarios that explore different possible futures, the
actions – or inactions – that bring them about and the
interconnections between different parts of the system.
Scenarios are used to present quantitative
projections of longterm energy trends. There are
three core scenarios, which differ in their assumptions
about the evolution of energy-related government
policies: NZE / APS / STEPS
(former report: New (Stated) Policies Scenario; Current
Policies Scenario; Sustainable Development Scenario).
(Source: IEA, WEO 2018)
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Main scenarios in the outlook WEO-2021
o Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario (NZE), which sets out a narrow but achievable
pathway for the global energy sector to achieve net zero CO2 emissions by 2050 to an
achievable roadmap to a 1.5 °C stabilisation in rising global temperatures.
o Announced Pledges Scenario (APS), which assumes that all climate commitments made
by governments around the world, including Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)
and longer term net zero targets, will be met in full and on time. To 2030, low emissions
sources of power generation account for the vast majority of capacity additions, with annual
additions of solar PV and wind approaching 500 gigawatts (GW) by 2030. Efficiency gains
mean that global energy demand plateaus post-2030. The global average temperature rise
in 2100 is held to around 2.1 °C above pre-industrial levels, although this scenario does
not hit net zero emissions, so the temperature trend has still not stabilised.
o Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS), which reflects current policy settings based on a sectorby-sector assessment of the specific policies that are in place, as well as those that have
been announced by governments around the world. In the STEPS, almost all of the net
growth in energy demand to 2050 is met by low emissions sources, but that leaves annual
emissions at around current levels. As a result, global average temperatures are still rising
when they hit 2.6 °C above pre-industrial levels in 2100. This growth largely comes from
emerging market and developing economies as they build up their nationwide infrastructure.
(Source: IEA, WEO 2021)
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CO2 emissions in the WEO-2021 scenarios
APS = Announced
Pledges Scenario; SDS
= Sustainable
Development Scenario;
NZE = Net Zero
Emissions by 2050
Scenario.
The Sustainable Development Scenario (SDS) achieves key energy-related
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals related to universal energy access
and major improvements in air quality, and reaches global net zero emissions by
2070 (with many countries and regions reaching net zero much earlier).
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Global median surface temperature rise
over time in the WEO-2021 scenarios
The temperature rise is 2.6 °C in the STEPS and 2.1 °C in the APS in 2100 and continues to increase. It
peaks at 1.7 °C in the SDS and 1.5 °C in the NZE around 2050 and then declines.
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Energy / Power Consumption
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Energy required by the
human body
80 W (- 2.000 W)
Heavy labour
203 W / 290 W
Energy consumption per
capita (fossil)
2,2 kW (5,5 kW/0,66 kW)
Energy consumption
increase
2,7 %
TU Graz I Institute of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Technology

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1 kWh (without losses) is able to …
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Lift 1 t Masse ?? m
Lift ?? t Masse 1 m high
367 m
367 t
Heat ?? litre of water up
from 10°C to 99°C
9,5 l
Fill a 30 litre compressed
air cylinder to ?? bar
200 bar
Accelerate a mass of
1 ton from 0 to ?? km/h
305 km/h
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Storage of 1 kWh Energy?
Batteries (mono cells)
Battery for diesel car (85 Ah)
Gasoline or Diesel
Firewood
Hard Coal
Natural Gas
Hydrogen Gas
?? kg water in reservoir
(50 m difference in altitude)
?? kg seawater with 25° C and
deep sea water with 5° C
(heat engine)
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50-100
20 kg
0,1 litre
0,25 kg
0,13 kg
120 litre
280 litre
7300 kg
à 5000 kg
TU Graz I Institute of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Technology

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Regenerative Energy Supply Austria
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Solar radiation
1100 kWh/m2a
Solar radiation, summer
day, no clouds, 12:00
800 W/m2
Worldwide energy
consumption
approx. 14 Gtoe
TU Graz I Institute of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Technology

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Average annual prices and taxes for the most relevant fuels 2013
(in cent/kWh)
Heavy fuel oil (Industry)1
Heavy fuel oil (Power plants)
Diesel (Private consumption)1
Gasoline 95 Octan (Private)1
Hard coal (Industry)
Hard coal (Power plants)
Natural gas (Industry)/kWh3
Natural gas (Households)/kWh2, 3
Electricity (Industry)/kWh
Electricity (Households)/kWh2
Net price
Overall taxes
Gross price
4,5
0,6
5,1
4,1
0,1
4,2
7,1
6,5
13,6
7,2
8,1
15,3
2,0
0,7
2,7
1,4
0,0
1,4
3,0
0,7
3,7
5,2
1,8
7,0
8,4
2,2
10,6
14,0
6,5
20,5
S: STATISTICS AUSTRIA, Material input statistics 2013, Wholesale price index 2013, Consumer price index 2013; Federal Ministry of Science,
Research and Economics; E-Control. Compiled on 03 December 2014. – 1) S: Federal Ministry of Science, Research and Economics. – 2) S: E-Control. –
3) refered Gross calorivic value.
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Annual sunshine hours – Tunisia?
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Start
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Average efficiency of coal-fired power plants by region
in the New Policies Scenario
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Backpressure power plants
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satisfy heat demand of an industrial process
or a district heating network.
by changing the exhaust pressure it is
possible to control the heat-to-power ratio
of a backpressure turbine.
thermal efficiencies can exceed 90%
electricity generation 15% to 25%.
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Steam turbine with extraction and condensation
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exhaust steam from a turbine
is fully condensed and at low
pressure, no useful heat is
produced.
steam can be extracted from
the turbine at an intermediate
pressure (CHP).
thermal efficiency: 10% to
20% is lost in the condenser.
electricity generating efficiency
up to 40%.
For example: generate
electricity and district heat in
winter and operate in a fully
condensing mode in summer
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Gas Turbine with Heat Recovery
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Reciprocating internal combustion engines
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Combined gas/steam cycle in co-generation
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Graz Cycle in combination with SOFC
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Graz Cycle in combination with SOFC
1600
1400
p = 50 bar
Heat Input
3 Stages Combustion chamber
1) Conventional combustion
2) Fuel cell
3) Catalytic Firing
1200
HTT
turbine
1000
800
T [°C]
Into CC
HPT
turbine
600
steam
compressors
p = 1.5 bar
400
separation
point
200
IPT, LPT
turbine
T-s diagram, H2/O2 version
with SOFC
0
0
2
4
6
8
10
s [KJ/kgK]
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Key Features of a Blast Furnace
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Energy Storage & Conversion VO
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Global steel production
Production
volume:
1864 million mt
(2020)
27 % of global
CO2 emissions
(manufacturing
sector)
Blast furnace
ironmaking:
2.2 t CO2/t steel
https://www.visualcapitalist.com/visualizing-50-years-of-global-steel-production/

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Energy Storage & Conversion VO
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Steel production – process steps
Route 1 –
coke
Route 2 –
natural gas
Route 3 –
electric arc
furnace
(EAF)
http://www.carmeuse-steel.com/news/co2-impact-steel-making-industry

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Energy Storage & Conversion VO
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Steel production – process steps
Route 1 – Blast
furnace
Route 2 –
Direct reduction +
Electric Arc
furnace
https://www.sustainableinsteel.eu/p/531/production_routes_for_steel.html

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Energy Storage & Conversion VO
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Steel production – Route 1: Blast furnace
Main power source: coke (>
90 % C)
Products:
Pig iron (Fe with high Ccontent)
→ further purification
Slag: used for paving
Furnace gas: for
electricity generation
Easy way to produce clean steel
High CO2 emissions: 1.8 - 3 t/t
https://www.steelsupplylp.com/blog/electric-arc-furnace-vs-blast-furnace
Blast furnace
Fe2O3 + 3 CO → 2 Fe + 3 CO2

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Energy Storage & Conversion VO
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Steel production – Route 2: Direct reduction + EAF
Main power sources: gas, electricity
Direct reduction:
Natural gas: with CO
Fe2O3 + 3 CO → 2 Fe + 3 CO2
Hydrogen:
3 Fe2O3 + 3 H2 → 2 Fe + 3 H2O
Smaller, more efficient
all types of steel can be produced
Less CO2 emissions: 0.5 – 1.2 t/t
High amount of electricity necessary
https://www.steelsupplylp.com/blog/electric-arc-furnace-vs-blast-furnace

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International Energy Agency (IEA)
Founded in 1974, the IEA was initially designed to help countries co-ordinate a
collective response to major disruptions in the supply of oil (crisis of 73/74).
While this remains a key aspect of its work, the IEA has evolved and expanded.
It is at the heart of global dialogue on energy, providing authoritative statistics and
analysis.
An autonomous organisation, the IEA examines the full spectrum of energy issues and
advocates policies that will enhance the reliability, affordability and sustainability of
energy in its 29 members countries and beyond.
The four main areas of IEA focus are:
Energy Security: Promoting diversity, efficiency and flexibility within all energy
sectors;
Economic Development: Supporting free markets to foster economic growth and
eliminate energy poverty;
Environmental Awareness: Analysing policy options to offset the impact of energy
production and use on the environment, especially for tackling climate change; and
Engagement Worldwide: Working closely with partner countries, especially major
economies, to find solutions to shared energy and environmental concerns.
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Committee on Energy Research and Technology
(CERT)
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International Energy Agency - Implementing Agreement on
Advanced Fuel Cells
Representative in Annex
PEFC
Representative in Annex
Portable Fuel Fells
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International Energy Agency (IEA)
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IEA - Events Leading Up to the IEA
The industrial countries’ worst fears were realized in the crisis of 19731974 when a number of the Members of the Organization of Arab
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) took concerted action,
beginning in October 1973, to reduce their previous oil production from
about 20.8 million barrels per day (mbd) to about 15.8 mbd.
These reductions were set to increase in monthly increments, until their
economic and political objectives were achieved, and they were
sufficiently implemented to increase oil prices dramatically, in some
spot transactions by as much as six-fold. The producers were able to fix
prices in the range of 400 per cent above previous levels.
The embargo was established by the selective delivery of available oil
and by the deliberate production cuts. So-called “friendly countries” would
continue to receive their previous levels of supply without disturbance.
Although the embargo was not uniformly applied, Saudi Arabia and Libya
cut off virtually all supplies to the United States, which they viewed as the
principal adversary. Denmark, The Netherlands, Portugal, Rhodesia and
South Africa were also embargo targets.
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IEA - Main objectives of the IEA 1974
to maintain and improve systems for coping with oil supply
disruptions
to promote rational energy policies in a global context through cooperative relations with non-member countries, industry and
international organisations
to operate a permanent information system on the international oil
market
to improve the world’s energy supply and demand structure by
developing alternative energy sources and increasing the
efficiency of energy use
to promote international collaboration on energy technology, and
to assist in the integration of environmental and energy policies.
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IEA - Emergency Self-Sufficiency in Oil
Supplies
Chapter I contains the Members’ oil emergency reserves
commitment (stocks), initially fixed at the equivalent of sixty days of
net oil imports, later raised to the current level of ninety days, and
it sets forth associated rules on that subject.
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IPCC
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change is a
scientific intergovernmental body belonging to the
United Nations
It is the leading body for the assessment of climate
change
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Authors, contributors, reviewers and
other experts
They are selected by the Working Group
Bureaus from nominations received from
governments and participating organizations or
identified directly because of their special
expertise reflected in their publications and
works
The composition of lead author teams for
chapters of IPCC reports shall reflect a range
of views, expertise and geographical
representation
They work on a voluntary basis
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GLOBAL ENERGY TRENDS (WEO 2012)
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Fossil-fuel reserves and resources by region
and type, end-2011
OPEC
Algeria, Angola,
Ecuador, Islamic
Republic of Iran, Iraq,
Kuwait, Libya,
Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, United Arab
Emirates and
Venezuela.
energy resources to be sufficient to satisfy projected energy demand to 2035 and well beyond.
investment, technology and skilled workforce is expected to be an ongoing challenge.
Coal, in particular, is extremely abundant (132 years of production at 2011 levels)
Proven reserves totalling 232 tcm are located in just three countries – Russia, Iran and Qatar.
Proven reserves of oil amount to 55 years at 2011 rates of production, with OPEC countries’
reserves representing 71% of the total.
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How will global energy markets evolve to 2040?
In the New Policies Scenario (2014), demand for oil rises by 14 mb/d, to reach 104
mb/d in 2040, despite measures and policies aimed at promoting energy efficiency
and fuel switching.
New Policies Scenario, 2014, www.worldenergyoutlook.org
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World proven reserves & production in the NPS (2014)
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World proven reserves & production in the NPS (2014)
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World proven reserves & production in the NPS (2014)
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Estimated market size for selected clean energy
technologies by technology and region, 2020-2050
In the NZE, the market
for clean technologies to
2050: USD 27 trillion.
Estimates: 3 billion
electric vehicles (EVs)
and 3 TWh of battery
storage deployed in the
NZE in 2050
(IEA, 2021a).
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Selected indicators
in the Net Zero
Emissions by 2050
Scenario
The four key priorities for action to close this
gap over the next decade, and to prepare
the ground for further rapid emissions
reduction beyond 2030, are to:
1. Deliver a surge in clean electrification.
2. Realise the full potential of energy
efficiency.
3. Prevent methane leaks from fossil fuel
operations.
4. Boost clean energy innovation.
WEO,2021
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1. Clean electrification
Cleaning up the electricity mix and extending the electrification of enduses
The electricity sector emitted 2020, 36% of all energy-related emissions
(12.3 Gt CO2). Coal remains the largest single source of electricity
worldwide.
Coal contributes just over one-third of electricity supply but is responsible
for nearly three-quarters of electricity sector CO2 emissions.
Accelerating the decarbonisation of the electricity mix is the single most
important way to close the 2030 gap between the APS and NZE.
Renewables increases from almost 30% of electricity generation globally
in 2020 to about 45% in 2030 (APS) and 60% (NZE).
Utility-scale battery storage capacity increases 18-times from 2020 to
2030 in the APS, and more than 30-times in the NZE.
In NZE, the share of EV cars in total car sales is over 60% in 2030.
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Clean electrification: Selected indicators in APS & NZE by 2050
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2. Methane
Methane has contributed around 30% of the global rise in temperature
today (emission around 120 Mt of methane globally in 2020, equivalent to
3.5 Gt CO2-eq).
Rapid reductions in methane emissions are key to limit near-term
warming and improve air quality.
45% of current oil and gas methane emissions could be avoided at no
net cost given that the cost of deploying the abatement measures is less
than the value of the gas that would be captured.
Methane emissions from fossil fuel
operations and reductions to 2030 in the
Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario
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Natural Gas
New Policies Scenaorio, 2014, www.worldenergyoutlook.org
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The World Bank
estimates 5 to 6 trillion cf
(cubic feet) of natural
gas are flared /vented
yearly representing 400
million tons of green
house gas emissions.
This is equivalent to
nearly one-third of the
European Union’s
annual natural gas
consumption.
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Abfackelstatistik: Russland verbrennt nach Berechnungen der Forscher mit Abstand das meiste
Erdgas. Die USA tauchen in der Statistik nicht auf, weil die Forscher in Nordamerika nur Flammen
von Seeplattformen erfassen konnten. Laut eigenen Angaben verbrennt die US-Ölindustrie etwa 2,8
Milliarden Kubikmeter pro Jahr.
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Gas prices
$/Mmbtu
BP Statistical Review
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Major gas trade movements 2013
Trade flows worldwide (billion cubic metres)
Source: Includes data from Cedigaz, CISStat, FGE MENAgas Service, IHS CERA, PIRA Energy Group.
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BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2014
© BP 2014

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3. Energy efficiency
Improvements in energy efficiency curb demand for electricity and
fuels of all kinds.
In the STEPS, overall global energy demand continues to climb; in
the APS it plateaus after 2030 (in the NZE, it is 15% lower)
As a result, the energy intensity of the global economy decreases
by 4% per year between 2020 and 2030 in the NZE, more than
double the average rate of the previous decade
Behavioural changes contribute around another 1 Gt by 2030 to
the additional emissions reductions in the NZE, notably in the
transport sector.
In the buildings sector, the number of building retrofits would need
to increase two-and-half-times compared with announced pledges
to close the gap; this is particularly important in advanced
economies.
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4. Innovation
Almost half of the emissions reductions achieved in the
NZE in 2050 come from technologies that are at the
demonstration or prototype stage today (heavy
industrial sectors and long-distance transport)
Need of support in key technology areas, such as
advanced batteries, low-carbon fuels, hydrogen
electrolysers and direct air capture.
In the NZE, around USD 90 billion of public money is
mobilised to complete a portfolio of demonstration
projects before 2030.
Announced pledges lag on key NZE milestones related
to hydrogen-based and other lowcarbon fuels, as
well as CCUS.
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Enhanced Oil Recovery
Thermal EOR: methods include cyclic steam and hot water injection, steam and
hot water flooding, and (rarely) the in-situ combustion of hydrocarbons. A common
principle of thermal EOR is to heat heavy oil, which reduces its viscosity sufficiently
to enable it to flow readily and be economically recovered. Steam processes are
generally applied to shallow, heavy oil deposits.
CO2-EOR: Miscible CO2 flooding has achieved widespread use in the U.S. CO2EOR is a major electricity consumer, requiring far more than any other EOR
method, and is also the fastest growing EOR application.
Other Gas EOR methods include hydrocarbon and nitrogen injection. The
application of hydrocarbon and nitrogen EOR methods is generally not costeffective and is expected to continue to decline over the next decade. The power
requirements for hydrocarbon and nitrogen EOR are similar to those of CO2-EOR.
Chemical/Microbial EOR methods involve addition of chemicals or microbial
agents to the reservoir. These agents modify fluid properties to make them more
favorable for oil recovery. The principal chemical EOR methods include injection of
polymers, surfactants, and alkaline chemicals.
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high cost of chemical agents
Microbial EOR is still in the research phase
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CO2 prices
The pricing of CO2 emissions (either through cap-and-trade programmes or carbon
taxes) affects demand for energy by altering the relative costs of using different fuels.
Several countries have implemented emissions trading schemes to set CO2 prices,
while many others have schemes under development, some at an advanced stage of
design.
Other countries have introduced carbon taxes – taxes on fuels linked to related
emissions – or are considering doing so. The EU Emissions Trading System (ETS) is
currently the world’s largest, covering all 27 member states, plus Norway, Iceland and
Liechtenstein.
CO2 prices under the programme had been driven to record lows by mid-2012,
primarily due to the dampening effect of the economic recession on energy demand.
A debate followed on reform options to ensure that prices rise sufficiently to
encourage investment in lowcarbon technologies.
In the Sustainable Development Scenario, a higher and broader CO2 price is
assumed, rising to $140/tonne in advanced economies and $125/tonne in Brazil,
China, Russia and South Africa by 2040. The carbon price applies to power
generation, industry and, in some countries, aviation.
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