The encyclopedic view of meaning. Lecture 6

1.

Lecture 6. The encyclopedic view of meaning
1. Guiding principles
2. The encyclopedic view of meaning
1 Conceptual structure is embodied.
2 Semantic structure is conceptual
structure
3 Meaning representation is
encyclopedic.
4 Meaning construction is
conceptualization.
1 There is no principled distinction
between semantics and pragmatics.
2 Encyclopedic knowledge is
structured.
3 The distinction between encyclopedic
meaning and contextual meaning.
4 Lexical items are points of access to
encyclopedic knowledge.
5 Encyclopedic knowledge is dynamic.

2.

Guiding principles of cognitive
semantics
1. Conceptual structure is embodied
(the ‘embodied cognition thesis’).
2. Semantic structure is conceptual
structure.
3. Meaning representation is
encyclopedic.
4. Meaning construction is
conceptualization.

3.

1. Conceptual structure is embodied
(the ‘embodied cognition thesis’).
“Conceptual structure is embodied” means that
the way we understand ideas and concepts is
connected to our real-life experiences and how
our bodies interact with the world around us.

4.

1. Conceptual structure is embodied
Example.
Imagine a man in a locked room. A room has the structural properties associated with a
bounded landmark: it has enclosed sides, an interior, a boundary and an exterior. As a
consequence of these properties, the bounded landmark has the additional functional property
of containment: the man is unable to leave the room.
(1) a. He’s in love.
b. We’re out of trouble now.
c. He’s coming out of the coma.
d. I’m slowly getting into shape.
e. He entered a state of euphoria.
f. He fell into a depression.

5.

2. Semantic structure is conceptual
structure
For example, we have a concept for the place on our faces below our
nose and above our mouth where moustaches go. We must have a
concept for this part of the face in order to understand that the hair
that grows there is called a moustache. However, as Langacker
(1987) points out, there is no English word that conventionally
encodes this concept (at least not in the non-specialist vocabulary of
everyday language).
1) William Shakespeare wrote Romeo and Juliet. [active]
2) Romeo and Juliet was written by William Shakespeare. [passive]

6.

2. Semantic structure is conceptual
structure
Firstly, it is important to point out that cognitive semanticists are not
claiming that language relates to concepts internal to the mind of the
speaker and nothing else.
Secondly, it concerns the notion of semantic structure. We have
assumed so far that the meanings associated with words can be
defined.
The concept of "FAMILY“ - a group of people related by blood or
marriage living together in a household

7.

3. Meaning representation is
(1) this beach has avoided the impact of a
encyclopedic.
spill
recent oil
;
(2) this beach is not going to be dug
up by property
a. The child is safe.
b. The beach is
safe.
c. The shovel is
safe.
(3) due to its location in a temperate climate, you
developers;
not
will suffer from sunburn on this beach;
(4) this beach, which is prone to crowding, is
free of pickpockets;
(5) there are no jellyfish in the sea;
(6) the miniature model beach with
accompanying model luxury hotels, designed by
an architect, which was inadvertently dropped
before an important meeting, has not been
damaged.

8.

4. Meaning construction is
In France, Bill Clinton wouldn’t have been harmed by his relationship with Monica Lewinsky.
conceptualization
Taylor (2002: 530):
Conceptual Blending Theory proposed by Gilles Fauconnier and Mark Turner (2002), is a framework
that explains how people creatively combine different concepts and mental spaces to understand and
generate new meanings.
A ‘reality space’, in which Clinton is the US President, Lewinsky is his intern, they have an affair, they
are found out and scandal ensues.
A second ‘reality space’, which contains the President of France together with knowledge about French
culture which deems it permissible for French presidents to have extra-marital relations, and ‘public’
and ‘private’ families.
In a third blended space, Clinton is the President of France, he has an affair with Lewinsky, they are
found out, but there is no scandal.

9.

Guiding principles to Cognitive semantics
1 Conceptual structure is embodied.
The nature of conceptual organization arises
from bodily experience
2 Semantic structure is conceptual
Semantic
structure
(the
meanings
structure
conventionally associated with words and other
linguistic units) is equated with concepts
3 Meaning representation is encyclopedic. Words (and other linguistic units) are treated as
‘points of access’ to vast repositories of
knowledge relating to a particular concept
4 Meaning construction is
conceptualization
Meaning construction is equated with
conceptualisation, a dynamic process whereby
linguistic units serve as prompts for an array of
conceptual operations and the recruitment of
background knowledge

10.

2. The encyclopedic view of
meaning
1 There is no principled distinction between semantics and
pragmatics.
2 Encyclopedic knowledge is structured.
3 The distinction between encyclopedic meaning and contextual
meaning.
4 Lexical items are points of access to encyclopedic knowledge.
5 Encyclopedic knowledge is dynamic

11.

1. There is no principled distinction between
semantics and pragmatics.
Semantics deals with the inherent meaning of words and sentences.
Pragmatics concerns how context influences this meaning.
Cognitive linguistics posits that meaning is not just about dictionary definitions (semantics) but
also how words are used in specific contexts (pragmatics).
Examples:
"Can you pass the salt?" Semantically, it's a question about ability. Pragmatically, it's a request for
the salt.
"I'm freezing." Semantically, it describes a state of being. Pragmatically, it can be a subtle request
to close a window or turn up the heat.

12.

2. Encyclopedic Knowledge is Structured
• Encyclopedic knowledge is considered to be a structured system of
knowledge, organised as a network.
• Not all aspects of the knowledge that is, in principle, accessible by a single
word have equal status.
Examples:
Word: "Bird." Associations might include feathers, fly, nest, species like
sparrows or eagles, related idioms ("bird's eye view"), and personal
experiences with birds.
Word: "Computer." Associations might include technology, software,
brands, personal usage experiences, and its impact on society

13.

2. Encyclopedic knowledge is structured
• Langacker (1987) divides the types of knowledge that
make up the encyclopaedic network into four types:
• (1) conventional ;
• (2) generic;
• (3) intrinsic;
• (4) characteristic.

14.

Conventional knowledge is information that is widely known and
shared by members of a speech community.
Generic knowledge is applicable to many examples of a certain
category and therefore has a good chance of being conventional. This
knowledge also contrasts with specific knowledge, which concerns
individual examples of a category.
Intrinsic knowledge relates to the internal properties of an object
that are not due to external influence. Intrinsic knowledge contrasts
with extrinsic knowledge which relates to knowledge that is external
to the object.
Characteristic knowledge relates to the degree to which knowledge
is unique to a particular class of objects.

15.

2. Encyclopedic knowledge is structured
1. Conventional ←→ Non-conventional
2. Generic ←→ Specific
3. Intrinsic ←→ Extrinsic
4. Characteristic ←→ Non-characteristic

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Knowledge types which give rise to centrality

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Which knowledge?
• is (relatively) unique to the object or relation in
question
• is widely known
• is general rather than specific in nature
• is deriving from the form of the entity or relation in
question

18.

3. The Distinction between
Encyclopedic Meaning and
Encyclopedic
Meaning
- The broader, generalized sense of a word
Contextual
Meaning.
derived from our vast knowledge.
Contextual Meaning - The specific meaning a word assumes based
on its immediate context.
Differences: While encyclopedic meaning is stable, contextual
meaning is dynamic and changes with different situations.
Examples:
Word: "Apple." Encyclopedic: A fruit, a tech company. Contextual:
In a fruit shop, it means the fruit. In a tech store, it refers to the
company and its products.

19.

4. Lexical Items as Points of Access to Encyclopedic Knowledge.
Definition: Words (or lexical items) act as entry points or gateways into our
vast structured encyclopedic knowledge.
Role in Cognition: They trigger associations, memories, and a wealth of related
information when encountered.
Examples:
"Wedding": This might evoke thoughts of ceremonies, love, dresses, cakes,
personal memories of weddings attended, cultural variations of wedding
ceremonies, and so on.
"Holiday": Beyond just a day of celebration, it might bring forth memories of
specific
holidays, traditional foods, songs, or rituals associated with certain holidays.

20.

5. Encyclopedic Knowledge is Dynamic.
Definition: Our reservoir of encyclopedic knowledge isn't static. It
evolves based on new experiences, learnings, and societal changes.
Dynamic Nature: This dynamism ensures that language is alive, adapting,
and evolving with time.
Examples:
The term "web" once predominantly meant a spider's creation. With the
advent of the internet, its encyclopedic knowledge expanded to include
the World Wide Web.
"Virus" had biological associations. Today, it can also mean a malicious
software, altering its encyclopedic footprint.

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The Encyclopedic View of Meaning:
Our lecture has underscored five critical aspects of the
encyclopedic view. We've unraveled the notion that there's
no clear division between semantics and pragmatics, that
our encyclopedic knowledge is a structured treasure trove,
that contextual meaning dynamically interacts with our
stable encyclopedic knowledge, that words are our portals
into this vast knowledge, and that our understanding of the
world constantly evolves, mirroring the dynamic nature of
encyclopedic knowledge.

22.

References
1. Evans V., Green M. (2006). Cognitive
Linguistics. An Introduction. EDINBURGH
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
Guiding Principles:
1. Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, Fire, and Dangerous
Things: What Categories Reveal About the Mind.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2. Langacker, R. W. (1987). Foundations of Cognitive
Grammar: Theoretical Prerequisites. Stanford:
Stanford University Press.
The Encyclopedic View:
1. Fillmore, C. J. (1982). Frame Semantics.
Linguistic Society of Korea.
2. Geeraerts, D. (2006). Cognitive Linguistics:
Basic Readings. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
3. Langacker, R. W. (1991). Concept, Image, and
Symbol: The Cognitive Basis of Grammar. Berlin:
Mouton de Gruyter.