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Classifications of expressive means and stylistic devices
1.
Classifications ofexpressive means and
stylistic devices
2.
1. Expressive means (EMs) and stylistic devices(SDs)
2. Hellenistic Roman rhetoric system
3. Stylistic theory by G. Leech
4. Classification of EMs and SDs by I. R. Galperin
5. Classification of EMs and SDs by Yu.M.Skrebnev
6. Classification of EMs and SDs by I. V. Arnold
3.
Expressive means of a language arethose linguistic forms and properties
that have the potential to make the
utterance emphatic or expressive.
EMs can be found on all levels phonetic, graphical, morphological,
lexical and syntactical.
4.
Phonetic EMsvocal pitch
pauses
sentence stress
drawling or staccato pronunciation, etc.
5.
Morphological EMs• diminutive suffixes (e.g. girlie, dearie)
• nonce-words, etc.
6.
Lexical EMs• intensifiers, e.g. awfully, nicely, pretty, etc.
7.
Syntactical EMs are specialgrammatical forms and syntactical
pattern attributing expressiveness.
E.g.: I do know you! I'm really angry with that
dog of yours! That you should deceive me! If
only I could help you!
8.
Graphical EMs• capitalisation
• hyphenation
• italics, etc.
9.
A stylistic device is a literary modelin which semantic and structural
features are blended so that it
represents a generalised pattern.
SDs can be phonetic, morphological,
lexical and syntactical.
SDs are also referred to as tropes or
figures of speech.
10.
The first school of rhetoricGorgius (483-375 BC)
Trasimachus (c. 4 BC)
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
11.
The first theory of style included 3subdivisions:
• the choice of words
• word combinations
• figures of speech
12.
Hellenistic Roman Rhetoric System• tropes
• figures of speech that create rhythm
• types of speech
13.
Tropes1. Metaphor
2. Puzzle (riddle)
3. Synecdoche
4. Metonymy
5. Catachresis (malapropism)
6. Epithet
7. Periphrasis
8. Hyperbole
9. Antonomasia
14.
Figures of speech that createrhythm
1. Figures that create rhythm by means of
addition
2. Figures based on compression
3. Figures based on assonance or accord
4. Figures based on opposition
15.
Figures that create rhythmby means of addition
1) Doubling (reduplication, repetition) of
words and sounds.
E. g. Tiptop, helterskelter, wishywashy; oh,
the dreary, dreary moorland.
2) Epenalepsis (polysyndeton): use of
several conjunctions.
E. g. He thought, and thought, and thought; I
hadn't realized until then how small the houses
were, how small and mean the shops. (Shute)
16.
3) Anaphora: repetition of a word or wordsat the beginning of two or more clauses,
sentences or verses.
E.g. My heart’s in the Highlands, my heart
is not here,
My heart’s in the Highlands, achasing
the deer… (R. Burns)
17.
4) Enjambment: running on of one thoughtinto the next line without breaking
the syntactical pattern.
E.g. April is the cruellest month, breeding
Lilacs out of the dead land, mixing
Memory and desire, stirring
Dull roots with spring rain.
Winter kept us warm, covering
Earth in forgetful snow, feeding
A little life with dried tubers. (T. S. Eliot)
18.
5) Asyndeton: omission ofconjunctions.
E.g. He ran upstairs, rummaged in the
drawers, found the gun and rushed out
into the cold night.
19.
Figures based on compression1) Zeugma (syllepsis): a figure by which a
verb, adjective or other part of speech takes two
or more objects each of which belongs to a
different semantic domain.
E. g. He lost his hat and his temper, with
weeping eyes and hearts.
20.
2) Chiasmus: a reversal in the order of wordsin one of two parallel phrases.
E. g. He went to London, to Paris went she.
3) Ellipsis: omission of words needed to
complete the construction or the sense.
E.g. The ringleader was hanged and his
followers imprisoned.
21.
Figures based on assonance oraccord
1) Equality of colons.
2) Proportions and harmony of colons.
22.
Figures based on opposition1) Antithesis: choice or arrangement of
words that emphasizes a contrast.
E. g. It was the best of times, it was the
worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it
was the age of foolishness.
2) Paradiastola: the lengthening of a syllable
regularly short (in Greek poetry).
3) Anastrophe (inversion).
E. g. Me he restored, him he hanged.
23.
Types of speechflowery (florid)
poetic
normal
dry
scanty
hackneyed
tasteless
24.
Stylistic theory by G. Leech• Literature is the creative use of language.
• The creative use of language can be equated
with the use of deviant forms of language.
• Deviant features can be paradigmatic and
syntagmatic.
25.
Paradigmatic deviations occur when theauthor’s choice from equivalent items
upsets the norms of the language.
Examples:
“farmyards away”, “a grief ago”, “all sun
long”
“As Connie had said, she handled just like
any
other aeroplane, except that she had
better
manners than most.”
26.
A syntagmatic deviation is based on theopposite phenomenon: instead of missing
the predictable choice the writer makes the
same choice several times.
E.g. alliteration:
“Robert Rowley rolled a round roll round”
instead of
“Robert turned over a hoop in a circle”
27.
Geoffrey N. Leech. “A LinguisticGuide to English Poetry”.
LONGMAN, London and New
York, 1991.
28.
Classification of EMs and SDs byI. R. Galperin
• Phonetic EMs and SDs
• Lexical EMs and SDs
• Syntactical EMs and SDs
29.
Phonetic EMs and SDs• onomatopoeia
• alliteration
• rhyme
• rhythm
30.
Onomatopoeia (sound imitation)Direct onomatopoeia: dingdong, burr, bang,
cuckoo.
Indirect onomatopoeia: “And the silken, sad,
uncertain rustling of each purple curtain.
thrilled me, filled me with fantastic terrors
never felt before.” (E. A. Poe)
31.
Alliteration - the recurrence of aninitial consonant sound in two or
more words which either follow
each other or appear close enough
to be noticeable.
32.
"The possessive instinct neverstands still” (J. Galsworthy)
"Deep into the darkness peering,
long I stood there wondering, fearing,
doubting, dreaming dreams no
mortals ever dared to dream before"
(E. A. Poe).
33.
Functions of alliteration• consolidating effect (creating a compositional
unity)
• heightening the general aesthetic effect (“a
musical accompaniment to the author’s idea”)
• imparting a melodic effect to the utterance
• emphasis and mnemonic effects
34.
Rhyme is the repetition of identicalor similar terminal sound
combinations of words.
35.
Types of rhyme• Full rhyme (right-might, needless-heedless)
• Incomplete rhyme
A. vowel rhyme (flesh - fresh -press)
B. consonant rhyme (tale - tool)
C. compound or broken rhyme (upon her
honour - won her)
D. eye-rhyme (love - prove, have - grave)
36.
Arrangement of the rhymes withinthe stanza:
couplets - aa
triple rhymes - aaa
cross rhymes - abab
frame or ring rhymes - abba
internal rhymes - ‘I bring fresh showers for the
thirsting flowers’ (Shelley)
• etc.
37.
Two main functions of rhyme:• dissevering
• consolidating
38.
Rhythm is a flow, movement,procedure, etc., characterized by
basically regular recurrence of
elements or features, as beat, or
accent, in alternation with opposite
or different elements or features.
39.
Lexical EMs and SDs1. Intentional mixing of the stylistic aspect of
words
2. Interaction of different types of lexical
meaning
3. Intensification of a certain feature of a thing or
phenomenon
4. Peculiar use of set expressions
40.
Intentional mixing of the stylisticaspect of words
E. g. ‘Will you oblige me by keeping your
trap shut, darling?’ (W. S. Maugham)
41.
Interaction of different types oflexical meaning
A. Interaction of primary dictionary and
contextually imposed meanings
B. Interaction of primary and derivative logical
meanings
C. Interaction of logical and emotive meanings
D. Interaction of logical and nominal meanings
42.
Interaction of primary dictionary andcontextually imposed meanings
• Metaphor
• Metonymy
• Irony
43.
Metaphor is a transfer of the name of an objectto another object on the basis of similarity,
likeness, affinity of the two objects
E.g. The machine sitting at the desk was no
longer a man; it was a busy New York broker...
(O.Henry).
44.
Components of metaphor• tenor (обозначаемое, референт)
• vehicle (обозначающее, агент)
• ground (основание)
45.
Types of metaphor• simple
• complex (sustained, prolonged, extended)
E.g.: Mr. Dombey's cup of satisfaction was so full
at this moment, however, that he felt he could
afford a drop or two of its contents, even to
sprinkle on the dust in the by-path of his little
daughter. (Dickens)
46.
Types of metaphor(continued)
• dead (trite) - leg of a table, hand of a clock, etc.
• genuine (fresh)
Trite metaphors can be revived, e.g.: Mr. Pickwick
bottled up his vengeance and corked it down.
47.
Metonymy is a transfer of the nameof an object to another object on the
basis of contiguity of the two objects.
48.
Types of relation in metonymy1) A concrete thing instead of an abstract notion: The
camp, the pulpit and the law For rich men's sons are free.
(Shelley)
2) The container instead of the thing contained: The hall
applauded.
3) The relation of proximity: The round game table was
boisterous and happy. (Dickens)
4) The material instead of the thing made of it: The
marble spoke.
5) The instrument which the doer uses in performing the
action instead of the action or the doer himself: As the
sword is the worst argument that can be used, so should it
be the last. (Byron)
49.
Irony is a stylistic device also based onthe simultaneous realization of two
logical meanings—dictionary and
contextual, but the two meanings stand
in opposition to each other.
E.g. (verbal irony):
It must be delightful to find oneself in a
foreign country without a penny in one's
pocket.
50.
Interaction of primary and derivativelogical meanings
• devices based on polysemantic effect
• zeugma
• pun
51.
Zeugma - combining a polysemantic wordwith two or more words each of which
belongs to a different semantic group.
She possessed two false teeth and a sympathetic
heart. (O. Henry)
At noon Mrs. Turpin would get out of bed and
humour, put on kimono, airs and the water to
boil for coffee. (O. Henry)
52.
Pun is ambiguity based onhomonymy or polysemy
OFFICER: What steps would you take if
an enemy tank were approaching
towards you?
SOLDIER: Long ones.
Seven days without water make one weak/week.
53.
Interaction of logical and emotivemeanings
• interjections and exclamatory words
• epithet
• oxymoron
54.
Interjections radiate the emotionalelement over the whole of the
utterance provided that they precede it.
55.
"Perhaps he won't. It's a long arduous roadhe's starting to travel, but it may be that at the
end of it he'll find what he's seeking." "What's
that?"
"Hasn't it occurred to you? It seems to me
that in what he said to you he indicated it pretty
plainly. God."
"God!" she cried. But it was an exclamation
of incredulous surprise. Our use of the same
word, but in such a different sense, had a
comic effect, so that we were obliged to laugh.
But Isabel immediately grew serious again and
I felt in her whole attitude something like fear.
56.
Epithet – a word, phrase or clause which isused attributively and which discloses an
individual, emotionally coloured attitude of
the author towards the object they describe
by emphasizing a certain property or
feature.
57.
Semantic classification of epithets1. Epithets associated with the noun point
at some feature inherent in the object
(dark forest, careful attention)
2. Epithets unassociated with the noun attributes used to characterize the object
by adding a feature not inherent in it,
more unexpected and unusual (heartburning smile, voiceless sands)
58.
Structural classification of epithets• simple: wild wind
• compound: heart-burning sigh, cloud-shapen giant
• phrase or sentence epithets: There is a sort of Ohwhat-a-wicked-world-this-is-and-how-I-wish-I-coulddo-something-to-make-it-better-and-nobler expression
about Montmorency that has been known to bring the
tears into the eyes of pious old ladies and gentlemen.
(Jerome K. Jerome)
• reversed: the shadow of a smile, a devil of a job
• transferred: a sleepless pillow, a disapproving finger,
nervous cigarette-butts
59.
Oxymoron is created by ascribing aproperty to an object incompatible,
inconsistent with that property. It is a
logical collision of words syntactically
connected but incongruent in their
meaning.
E.g. sweet sorrow, deafening silence
60.
Interaction of logical and nominalmeanings
Antonomasia - the use of the name of a
historical, literary, mythological or biblical
personage applied to a person whose
characteristic features resemble those of the
well-known original.
E. g. Brutus (a traitor), Don Juan (a ladies’
man), Mr. KnowAll, etc.
61.
EMs and SDs based on theintensification of a certain feature of a
thing or phenomenon
simile
periphrasis
euphemism
hyperbole
62.
Simile is an explicit statementconcerning the similarity, the
affinity of two different notions.
• That fellow is like a bear.
• She is as beautiful as a flower.
• My heart is like a singing bird.
63.
1. She can sing like a professionalactress.
2. She sings like a nightingale.
64.
Periphrasis - a description of anobject instead of its name
• Delia was studying under Rosenstock - you
know his repute as a disturber of the piano
keys. (O. Henry)
• my better half (my wife)
• the fair sex (women)
65.
Euphemism - a variety ofperiphrasis, a word or phrase used
to replace an unpleasant word or
expression by a conventionally
more acceptable one.
66.
Hyperbole - a deliberate overstatementor exaggeration of a feature essential
(unlike periphrasis) to the object or
phenomenon.
• He was so tall that I was not sure he had a face
(O. Henry)
67.
EMs and SDs based on the peculiaruse of set expressions
The cliche
Proverbs and sayings
Epigrams
Allusions
Decomposition of set phrases
68.
A cliche is generally defined as anexpression that has become
hackneyed and trite.
69.
Proverbs are brief statementsshowing in condensed form the
accumulated life experience of the
community and serving as
conventional practical symbols for
abstract ideas. They are usually
didactic and image bearing.
70.
"Come!" he said, "milk's spilt." (Galsworthy)"But to all that moving experience there had
been a shadow (a dark lining to the silver cloud),
insistent and plain, which disconcerted her…”
(Maugham)
"We were dashed uncomfortable in the frying
pan, but we should have been a damned sight
worse off in the fire.” (Maugham)
"You know which side the law's buttered."
(Galsworthy)
71.
Epigrams are terse, witty, pointedstatements, showing the ingenious turn of
mind of the originator. They always have a
literary-bookish air about them.
An epigram is a stylistic device akin to a
proverb, the only difference being that
epigrams are coined by individuals whose
names we know, while proverbs are the
coinage of the people.
72.
Decomposition of set phrasesIt was raining cats and dogs, and two kittens and
a puppy landed on my window-sill. (Chesterton)
73.
Syntactical EMs and SDs1. Compositional patterns of syntactical
arrangement.
2. Particular ways of combining parts of the
utterance.
3. Particular use of colloquial constructions.
4. Stylistic use of structural meaning.
74.
Compositional patterns of syntacticalarrangement
1. Stylistic inversion
2. Detached construction
3. Parallel construction
4. Chiasmus
5. Repetition
6. Enumeration
7. Suspense
8. Climax (gradation)
9. Antithesis
75.
Stylistic inversion: five main types1. “Talent Mr. Micawber has; capital Mr. Micawber has not.”
(Dickens)
2. “With fingers weary and worn…” (Th. Hood)
“Once upon a midnight dreary…” (E. A. Poe)
3. a) “A good generous prayer it was.” (Mark Twain)
b) “Rude am I in my speech…” (Shakespeare)
4. “Eagerly I wished the morrow.” (Poe)
“My dearest daughter, at your feet I fall.” (Dryden)
“A tone of most extraordinary comparison Miss Tox said it
in.” (Dickens)
5. “In went Mr. Pickwick.” (Dickens)
“Down dropped the breeze…” (Coleridge)
76.
Detached construction,parenthesis
"Steyne rose up, grinding his teeth, pale, and with
fury in his eyes." (Thackeray)
"Sir Pitt came in first, very much flushed, and
rather unsteady in his gait." (Thackeray)
"June stood in front, fending off this idle curiosity
— a little bit of a thing, as somebody said, 'all hair
and spirit'..."(Galsworthy)
77.
Parallel construction (partial andcomplete) - identical, or similar,
syntactical structure in two or more
sentences or parts of a sentence in
close succession
78.
“There were ... real silver spoons to stir thetea with, and real china cups to drink it out of,
and plates of the same to hold the cakes and
toast in." (Dickens)
"It is the mob that labour in your fields and
serve in your houses—that man your navy and
recruit your army,—that have enabled you to
defy all the world, and can also defy you when
neglect and calamity have driven them to
despair." (Byron)
79.
Chiasmus - a reversed parallelconstruction
"As high as we have mounted in delight
In our dejection do we sink as low."
(Wordsworth)
"Down dropped the breeze,
The sails dropped down" (Coleridge)
"The register of his burial was signed by the
clergyman, the clerk, the undertaker and the
chief mourner. Scrooge signed it. (Dickens)
80.
RepetitionCompositional patterns
Anaphora
"For that was it! Ignorant of the long and stealthy march
of passion, and of the state to which it had reduced Fleur;
ignorant of how Soames had watched her, ignorant of
Fleur's reckless desperation... — ignorant of all this,
everybody felt aggrieved." (Galsworthy)
Epiphora
"I am exactly the man to be placed in a superior position
in such a case as that. I am above the rest of mankind, in
such a case as that. I can act with philosophy in such a
case as that. (Dickens)
81.
Framing"Poor doll’s dressmaker! How often so dragged down by hands
that should have raised her up; how often so misdirected
when losing her way on the eternal road and asking guidance.
Poor, little doll's dressmaker". (Dickens)
Anadiplosis
"Freeman and slave... earned on an uninterrupted, now
hidden, now open fight, a fight that' each time ended, either
in a revolutionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the
common ruin of the contending classes."(Marx, Engels)
Chain repetition
"A smile would come into Mr. Pickwick's face: the smile
extended into a laugh, the laugh into a roar, and the roar
became general." (Dickens)
82.
Rootrepetition"To live again in the youth of the young.”
(Galsworthy)
"He loves a dodge for its own sake; being...—the
dodgerest of all the dodgers" (Dickens)
Synonymical repetition
"...are there not capital punishments sufficient in
your statutes? Is there not blood enough upon your
penal code!" (Byron)
83.
Functions of repetitionTo intensify the emotion:
"Stop!"—she cried, "Don't tell me! I don't want to
hear, I don't want to hear what you've come for! I don't
want to hear." (Galsworthy)
To express monotony:
"What has my life been? Fag and grind, fag and grind.
Turn the wheel, turn the wheel.” (Dickens)
To express reiteration or continuity:
"Fledgeby knocked and rang, and Fledgeby rang and
knocked, but no one came.”
"He played the tune over and over again.”
84.
Background repetition is sometimes usedto stress the ordinarily unstressed elements of
the utterance:
"I am attached to you. But I can't consent
and won't consent and I never did consent
and I never will consent to be lost in you."
(Dickens)
85.
Enumeration is a stylistic device by whichseparate things, objects, properties, actions
are named one by one so that they produce a
chain and display semantic homogeneity,
remote though it may seem.
E. g.: ”The principal production of
these towns... appear to be soldiers,
sailors, Jews, chalk, shrimps, officers
and
dockyard
men.”(Dickens,
"Pickwick Papers")
86.
Suspense is a compositional device which consistsin arranging the sentence in such a way that the less
important, descriptive parts are at the beginning, and
the main idea is withheld till the end.
“ If you can keep your head when all about you
Are losing theirs and blaming it on you,
If you can trust yourself when all men doubt you
And make allowance for their doubting too,
If you can dream and not make dreams your master,
If you can think and not make thoughts your aim,
Yours is the earth and everything that's in it,...
And which is more, you'll be a Man, my son.”
(R. Kipling)
87.
Climax (gradation) is an arrangement ofsentences (or of the homogeneous parts of one
sentence) which secures a gradual increase in
significance, importance, or emotional tension
in the utterance.
Types of climax
1) Logical
2) Emotional
3) Quantitative
88.
Logical climax is based on the relative importance ofthe component parts looked at from the point of view
of the concepts embodied in them.
"Nobody ever stopped him in the street to say, with
gladsome looks, 'My dear Scrooge, how are you?
When will you come to see me?' No beggars
implored him to bestow a trifle, no children asked
him what it was o'clock, no man or woman ever
once in all his life inquired the way to such and
such a place, of Scrooge. Even the blind men's
dogs appeared to know him, and when they saw
him coming on, would tug their owners into
doorways and up courts; and then would wag their
tails, as though they said, 'No eye at all is better
than an evil eye, dark master!’" (Ch. Dickens)
89.
Emotional climax is based on therelative emotional tension produced by
words with emotive meaning.
"It was a lovely city, a beautiful city,
a fair city, a veritable gem of a city.”
90.
Quantitative climax is an evident increasein the volume of the corresponding
concepts.
"They looked at hundreds of houses; they
climbed thousands of stairs; they inspected
innumerable kitchens." (Maugham)
"Little by little, bit by bit, and day by day, and
year by year the baron got the worst of some
disputed question." (Dickens)
91.
Anticlimax"In days of yore, a mighty rumbling was
heard in a Mountain. It was said to be in
labour, and multitudes flocked together,
from far and near, to see what it would
produce. After a long expectation and many
wise conjectures from the bystanders—out
popped a Mouse!"
92.
Antithesis"Youth is lovely, age is lonely,
Youth is fiery, age is frosty…” (Longfellow)
"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it
was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it
was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity,
if was the season of Light, it was the season of
Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of
despair, We had everything before us, we had nothing
before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we are
all going direct the other way..." (Dickens)
93.
Functions of antithesisrhythm-forming
copulative
dissevering
comparative
94.
Particular ways of combining partsof the utterance
1. Asyndeton
2. Polysyndeton
3. Gap-sentence link
95.
Asyndeton - a deliberate omission of theconnective where it is generally expected to
be according to the norms of the literary
language.
"Soames turned away; he had an utter
disinclination for talk like one standing before
an open grave, watching a coffin slowly
lowered." (Galsworthy)
"Bicket did not answer his throat felt too
dry." (Galsworthy)
96.
Polysyndeton - connecting sentences, orphrases, or syntagms, or words by using
connectives (mostly conjunctions and
prepositions) before each component part.
"The heaviest rain, and snow, and hail, and sleet,
could boast of the advantage over him in only one
respect." (Dickens)
"Should you ask me, whence these stories?
Whence these legends and traditions, With the odours
of the forest, With the dew, and damp of meadows, With
the curling smoke of wigwams, With the rushing of great
rivers, With their frequent repetitions,…" (Longfellow)
97.
Functions of polysyndeton:rhythmical
disintegrating
consolidating
expressing sequence
98.
Gap-sentence link is found if the connectionbetween two ideas is not immediately apparent
and it requires a certain mental effort to bridge
the semantic gap.
"She and that fellow ought to be the
sufferers, and they were in Italy" (Galsworthy)
"It was not Capetown, where people only
frowned when they saw a black boy and a
white girl. But here... And he loved her"
(Abrahams)
99.
Particular use of colloquialconstructions
1. Ellipsis
2. Break-in-the-narrative
3. Question-in-the-narrative
4. Represented speech
100.
Ellipsis"Thrice happy he who, after survey
of the good company, can win a corner.” (Byron)
"Nothing so difficult as a beginning."
101.
Break-in-the-narrative (aposiopesis) - astopping short for rhetorical effect
"You just come home or I'll …”
"Then, Mamma, I hardly like to let the words cross
my lips, but they have wicked, wicked attractions out
there—like dancing girls that—that charm snakes
and dance without—Miss Moir with downcast eyes,
broke off significantly and blushed, whilst the down
on her upper lip quivered modestly." (Cronin)
“It depends”
“Good intentions but…”
102.
Question-in-the-narrative - a question that isasked (and, as a rule, answered) by one and the
same person, usually the author.
“For what is left the poet here?
For Greeks a blush—for Greece a tear.” (Byron)
"How long must it go on? How long must we suffer?
Where is the end? What is the end?" (Norris)
103.
Represented speech“A maid came in now with a blue gown very thick
and soft. Could she do anything for Miss Freeland?
No, thanks, she could not, only, did she know where
Mr. Freeland's room was?” (Galsworthy)
"An idea had occurred to Soames. His cousin
Jolyon was Irene's trustee, the first step would be to
go down and see him at Robin Hill. Robin Hill! The
odd—the very odd feeling those words brought back.
Robin Hill—the house Bosinney had built for him and
Irene—the house they had never lived in—the fatal
house! And Jolyon lived there now! H'm!" (Galsworthy)
104.
Stylistic use of structural meaning1. Rhetorical questions
2. Litotes
105.
Rhetorical question reshapes the grammaticalmeaning of the interrogative sentence. Thus there is
an interplay of two structural meanings: 1) that of
the question and 2) that of the statement (either
affirmative or negative).
They are utterances in the form of questions which
pronounce judgements and also express various
kinds of modal shades of meaning, as doubt,
challenge, scorn, irony and so on.
E. g.: ”Who is here so vile that will not love his
country?" (Shakespeare)
106.
Litotes is a deliberate understatement consisting of apeculiar use of negative constructions.
1) The negation plus noun or adjective serves to
establish a positive feature in a person or thing:
He is no coward.—He is a brave man.
"He was no gentle lamb, and the part of second
fiddle would never do for the highpitched
dominance of his nature." (Jack London)
2) A construction with two negations:
"Soames, with his lips and his squared chin was
not unlike a bull dog.” (Galsworthy)
107.
Classification of expressive meansand stylistic devices by Y. M.Skrebnev
Y. M. Skrebnev. Fundamentals of English
Stylistics. M., 1994
108.
STYLISTICSPARADIGMATIC
SYNTAGMATIC
PHONETICS
PHONETICS
MORPHOLOGY
MORPHOLOGY
LEXICOLOGY
LEXICOLOGY
SYNTAX
SYNTAX
SEMASIOLOGY
SEMASIOLOGY
109.
Paradigmatic phonetics actually describesphonographical stylistic features of a
written text.
• graphons - graphic means to reproduce the phonetic
peculiarities of individual speech or dialect, e.g.:
Thquire!... Your thervant! Thith ith a bad pieth of
bithnith, thith ith… (Ch. Dickens)
• Other graphic means to emphasise the «unheard»
phonetic characteristics such as the pitch of voice,
the stress, and other melodic features, e.g. italics,
capitalisation, repetition of letters.
• Onomatopoeia
110.
Syntagmatic phonetics deals with prosodicfeatures (intonation, sentence stress, tempo) and
the interaction of speech sounds.
alliteration
assonance
paronomasia
rhythm and meter
rhyme
111.
Assonance is an agreement (identity orsimilarity) of vowels in conjunction with
different consonant sounds.
E.g.: …Tell this soul, with sorrow laden, if
within the distant Aiden, / I shall clasp a
sainted maiden, whom the angels name
Lenore - / Clasp a rare and radiant
maiden, whom the angels name Lenore?
(Poe)
112.
Paronomasia is co-occurrence of paronyms.A paronym in linguistics may refer to two different things:
1. A word that is related to another word and derives from the same
root (policy - politics, human - humane).
2. Words which are almost homonyms, but have slight differences in
spelling or pronunciation and have different meanings (affect and
effect).
And the raven, never flitting, still is sitting, still is sitting
On the pallid bust of Pallas just above my chamber door; (…)
And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor
Shall be lifted - nevermore! (E. Poe)
But still he strummed on, and his mind wandered in and out of poultry
and politics, Old Forsyte, Fleur, Foggartism and the Ferrar girl – like a
man in a maelstrom whirling round with his head just above water. (J.
Galsworthy)
113.
Paradigmatic morphology observes the stylisticpotentials of grammatical forms which G. Leech
would describe as deviant.
E. g.:
historical present
What else do I remember? Let me see.
There comes out of the cloud our house... (Dickens)
depersonification
«Where did you find it?» asked Mord Em'ly of
Miss Gilliken with a satirical accent.
«Who are you calling "it"?» demanded Mr. Barden
aggressively. «P'raps you'll kindly call me 'im and not it».
(Partridge)
114.
Syntagmatic morphology dealswith co-occurrence of morphemes
and the stylistic effect created by it.
115.
Paradigmatic lexicology subdividesEnglish vocabulary into stylistic layers.
Positive/elevated/superneutral
poetic;
official;
professional.
Bookish, archaic
Neutral
Negative/degraded/subneutral
colloquial; neologisms;
jargon;
slang;
noncewords;
vulgar words (lexical and stylistic vulgarisms).
116.
Syntagmatic lexicology studies the «word-andcontext» relations, e.g. those connected with cooccurrence of words of various stylisticcolourings and various instances of intentional
and unintentional lexical mixtures.
E.g.: Will you oblige me by keeping your trap
shut, my dear?
Syntagmatic lexicology also studies simple lexical
repetition.
E.g.: He thought and thought and thought it over
and over and over.
117.
Paradigmatic syntax1. Sentences with deviations in the quantitative
characteristics of sentence structure: (A) with the
absence of elements which are obligatory, (B) with
the excess of non-essential elements.
2. Sentences with deviations in the word order.
3. Sentences with revaluation of syntactical meaning.
4. Sentences where various types of syntactical
connections are viewed stylistically.
118.
Sentences with deviations in the quantitativecharacteristics of sentence structure: (A) with the
absence of elements which are obligatory
ellipsis
aposiopesis
suppression
one-member nominative sentences
morphologically incomplete sentences
asyndeton
119.
Ellipsis“Where is he?” – “Out in the garden.”
«He became one of the prominent men of the
House. Spoke clearly and modestly, and was
never too long. Held the House where men of
higher abilities «bored» it» (Collins).
120.
Aposiopesis and suppressionKEITH (letting go her arms): My God! If the
police come… find me here… (He dashes to the
door. Then stops). (Galsworthy)
You heard what the guy said: get out or else.
(Gardner)
121.
One-member nominative sentences:London. Fog everywhere. Implacable
November weather. (Ch. Dickens)
Morphologically
incomplete
sentences:
I been waiting here all morning…
(Robbins)
Fine class of friends you pick. (Robbins)
122.
Sentences with deviations in the quantitativecharacteristics of sentence structure: (B) with
the excess of non-essential elements
1. Repetition of sentence parts
2. Syntactic tautology (A) prolepsis, (B)
tautology in appended statements):
A. Prolepsis: Miss Tillie Webster, she slept forty
days and nights without waking up. (O. Henry)
B. Tautology in appended statements: I know
what the like of you are, I do. (B. Shaw)
You’ve made a nice mess, you have. (Jerome)
3. Polysyndeton
123.
Sentences with revaluation ofsyntactical meaning
Quasiaffirmative sentences: Isn't that
too bad? = That is too bad.
Quasiinterrogative sentences: Here you
are to write down your age and birthplace =
How old are you? Where were you born?
Quasinegative sentences: Did I say a
word about the money? (Shaw) = I did not
say...
Quasiimperative sentences: Here!
Quick! — Come here! Be quick!
124.
Sentences where various types of syntacticalconnections are viewed stylistically
• «Smither should choose it for her at the stores nice
and dappled» (Galsworthy)
• «Talent, Mr. Micawber has, capital, Mr. Micawber has
not» (Dickens)
• «...he was struck by the thought (what devil’s
whisper? what evil hint of an evil spirit?) supposing
that he and Roberta no, say he and Sondra (no,
Sondra could swim so well and so could he) he and
Roberta were in a small boat somewhere...» (Dreiser)
• «Here is a long passage what an enormous
prospective I make of it! leading from Peggoty ’s
kitchen to the front door» (Dickens)
125.
Syntagmatic syntax deals with a chain ofsentences, the sequence of sentences
constituting a text
parallelism
anaphora
epiphora
framing
anadiplosis
chiasmus
126.
Parallelism is a structural repetition ofsentences though often accompanied by the lexical
repetition
E.
g.
The
cock
is
crowing,
The stream is flowing... (Wordsworth)
anaphora (identity of beginnings, initial
elements).
E. g. If only little Edward were twenty, old
enough to marry well and fend for himself,
instead often. If only it were not necessary to
provide a dowary for his daughter. If only his
own debts were less. (Rutherfurd)
127.
Epiphora (opposite of the anaphora, identicalelements at the end of sentences, paragraphs, chapters,
stanzas).
E. g. For all averred, I had killed the bird. That made
the breeze to blow. Ah wretch! Said they, the bird to
slay, That made the breeze to blow! (Coleridge)
Framing (repetition of some element at the
beginning and at the end of a sentence, paragraph or
stanza).
E. g. Never wonder. By means of addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division, settle
everything somehow, and never wonder. (Dickens)
128.
Anadiplosis (the final element of one sentence,paragraph, stanza is repeated in the initial part of the
next
sentence,
paragraph,
stanza.
E. g. Three fishers went sailing out into the West.
Out into the West, as the sun went down. (Kingsley)
Chiasmus (parallelism reversed, two parallel
syntactical constructions contain a reversed order of
their members).
E. g. That he sings and he sings, and for ever
sings he— I love my Love and my Love loves me!
(Coleridge)
129.
Paradigmatic semasiology deals withtransfer of names or what are traditionally
known as tropes
FIGURES OF REPLACEMENT
• Figures of quantity: hyperbole,
understatement (including litotes)
• Figures of quality: metaphoric and
metonymic group
• Figure of contrast: irony
130.
Syntagmatic semasiology deals with semanticrelationships expressed at the length of a whole
text and studies types of names used for linear
arrangement of meanings
FIGURES OF CO-OCCURRENCE
• Figures of identity: simile, quasi-identity,
synonymous replacement
• Figures of inequality: specifying (clarifying)
synonyms, climax, anti-climax, zeugma, pun,
disguised tautology
• Figure of contrast: oxymoron, antithesis
131.
FIGURES OF QUANTITY• hyperbole - a deliberate understatement, e.g.: One after
another those people lay down on the ground to laugh –
and two of them died. (Twain)
• understatement (meiosis) - toning down, understating
the idea, e.g.: "We've got a few lights on Broadway, don't
you think, Mr. Platt?”
“She sang listlessly as if she were bored with the whole
thing, and the applause she collected could have been
packed into a thimble, without overflowing." (Chase)
132.
Litotes - expressing an idea by means ofnegating the opposite idea
• "... she was not unlike Morgiana in the 'Forty Thieves'."
(Dickens)
• "And Captain Trevelyan was not overpleased about it."
(Christie)
• "A chiselled, ruddy face completed the notunhandsome picture." (Pendelton)
• "You wouldn't exactly call Warley heavily
industrialized." (Braine)
• "His suit... had... that elasticity disciplined only by firstrate tailoring which isn't bought for very much
under thirty guineas." (Braine)
133.
FIGURES OF QUALITYMETONYMIC GROUP
• metonymy
• synecdoche
• periphrasis
• metonymic antonomasia
134.
FIGURES OF QUALITYMETAPHORIC GROUP
• metaphor
personification
allusion
metaphoric antonomasia
allegory
135.
Personification is a particular case ofmetaphor. It consists in attributing life and
mind to inanimate things.
FORMAL MARKERS OF PERSONIFICATION
• Capitalization: «No sleep till morn, when Youth and
Pleasure meet To chase the glowing Hours with flying
feet». (Byron)
• Personal pronouns “he” and “she”: «Then Night, like
some great loving mother, gently lays her hand at our
fevered head... and, though she does not speak, we
know what she would say...» (Jerome).
• Direct address: «О stretch by reign, fair Peace, from
shore to shore Till conquest cease, and slavery be no
more». (A. Pope)
136.
An allusion is an indirect reference, by wordor phrase, to a historical, literary,
mythological, biblical fact made in the course
of speaking or writing.
• “Don’t act like a Romeo in front of her.”
• The rise in poverty will unlock the Pandora’s
box of crimes.
• “This place is like a Garden of Eden.”
• “Hey! Guess who the new Newton of our
school is?”
137.
Metaphorical antonomasia is the use of thename of a historical, literary, mythological or
biblical personage applied to a person whose
characteristic features resemble those of the wellknown original.
E. g. Brutus (a traitor), Don Juan (a ladies’
man)
138.
Allegory is a term in literature, or even inart in general (painting, sculpture). It
means expressing abstract ideas through
concrete pictures.
E.g. fairy-tales, fables, philosophical or
satirical novels (Gulliver’s Travels by
Jonathan Swift)
139.
FIGURE OF CONTRASTIRONY
Irony is a transfer based upon the opposition of the two
notions: the notion named and the notion meant.
E. g. “Never mind,” said the stranger, cutting the address
very short, "said enough—no more; smart chap that cabman
—handled his fives well; but if I'd been your friend in the
green jemmy—damn me—punch his head— God I would—
pig's whisper— pieman too,—no gammon.”
“This coherent speech was interrupted by the entrance of
the Rochester coachman, to announce that…” (Dickens)
140.
Syntagmatic semasiology deals with semanticrelationships expressed at the length of a whole
text and studies types of names used for linear
arrangement of meanings
FIGURES OF CO-OCCURRENCE
• Figures of identity: simile, quasi-identity,
synonymous replacement
• Figures of inequality: specifying (clarifying)
synonyms, climax, anti-climax, zeugma, pun,
disguised tautology
• Figure of contrast: oxymoron, antithesis
141.
FIGURES OF IDENTITYSimile - an explicit statement of partial identity: affinity, likeness,
similarity of 2 objects, e. g. She sings like a nightingale.
Quasi-identity - a figure intermediate between metaphor and
simile, or between metonymy and simile, with the structure
TENOR IS VEHICLE.
E.g.: She is a real angel, Your brother is an ass (metaphoric quasiidentities), She was all angles and bones (Lee) (metonymic quasiidentity).
Synonymous replacement - the use of synonyms or synonymous
phrases to avoid monotony or as situational substitutes.
E. g.: He brought home numberless prizes. He told his mother
countless stories. (Thackeray)
142.
FIGURES OF INEQUALITYClarifying (specifying) synonyms - synonymous repetition used to
characterise different aspects of the same referent), e.g. You
undercut, sinful, insidious hog! (O'Henry)
Climax - gradation of emphatic elements growing in strength),
e. g. What difference if it rained, hailed, blew, snowed, cycloned?
(O'Henry).
Anti-climax (bathos, back gradation)— an unexpectedly weak or
contrastive element that makes the statement humorous or
ridiculous), e. g. The woman who could face the very devil himself
or a mouse—goes all to pieces in front of a flash of lightning.
(Twain)
Zeugma - a combination of unequal, or incompatible words based
on the economy of syntactical units).
E. g. She dropped a tear and her pocket handkerchief. (Dickens)
143.
FIGURES OF INEQUALITY(continued)
Pun (play upon words based on polysemy or
homonymy).
Disguised tautology (semantic difference in formally
coincidental parts of a sentence, repetition here does
not emphasise the idea but carries a different
information in each of the two parts).
E. g.:
And that’s that…
For East is East, and West is West... (Kipling)
144.
FIGURES OF CONTRASTOxymoron - a logical collision of seemingly
incompatible words.
E. g.: We were fellow strangers. (G. Greene)
Antithesis - anti-statement, active confrontation
of notions used to show the contradictory
nature of the subject described.
E. g.: His fees were high, his lessons were light.
(O'Henry)
145.
Арнольд И. В. Стилистика. Современыйанглийский язык. Учебник для вузов. М., 2010
• Level-based classification of EMs and SDs
(lexical, morphological, syntactical, phonetic
and graphical level).
• A great emphasis is laid on decoding stylistics,
the terminology from the theory of
information is applied.
• SDs and EMs are studied on the basis of
oppositions.
• Text stylistics, context and intertextuality are
discussed.