Theories of Second Language Acquisition (SLA)

1.

Theories of Second
Language Acquisition
(SLA)
Ene Alas, Ph.D
Tallinn University

2.

Discussion Focus
O Definition of Second Language Acquisition
O Overview of Contemporary SLA Theories
O A Basic Model of SLA (key elements)
O Reflect on Practical Application and
Implications of SLA Theory and Research

3.

A Definition of the SLA
O Developed over the last 40 years.
O SLA is the study of how learners create a new
language system in the second/ foreign
language learning contexts.
O Researchers are mainly interested in:
O the processes involved in the acquisition of an L2;
O the internal and external factors that might affect
aquisition.

4.

SLA addresses 2 fundamental questions:
O How do the learners internalise the linguistic
system of another language?
O How do the learners make use of that
linguistic system during comprehension
(understanding) and speech production?

5.

SLA theories have been grouped from
various different perspectives:
O Rationalist – humans have an inborn ability to
develop language; we are genetically
programmed;
O Linguistic – the system underlying the grammar
and construction (competence) of L2;
O Cognitive – how the human brainprocesses and
generates new information; how L2 learners
access linguistic knowledge;
O Psycholinguistic – how L2 learners process
information, organise and use knowledge;
O Sociolinguistic – how social factors change L2
knowledge.

6.

SLA is multidisciplinary
O Linguistics
O Learners acquire L2
O Applied linguistics
through a number of
interactive factors:
O Psycholinguistics
O exposure to language
O Psychology
O Education, etc.
input;
O making use of the
linguistic knowledge
of the native
language;
O accessing universal
properties.

7.

The Nature of Language
O Lexicon O Phonology –
O Morphology –
O Syntax –
O Pragmatics –
O Sociolinguistics –
O Discourse –
vocabulary
sound patterns
word building
sentence structure
how context determines
meaning
how society affects
language
how sentences are
connected.

8.

Theories of SLA
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Behaviourism.
Universal Grammar
Theory.
Monitor Theory.
Interaction Hypothesis.
Processability Theory.
6. Input Processing Theory.
7. Skill acquisition Theory.
8. Emergentism.
9. Declarative and Procedural
Model.
10. Complexity Theory.
11. Sociocultural Theory.

9.

Behaviourism
O When: the 1940s and 50s
O Who: Skinner (1957)
Claims:
O Human and animal learning are the same.
O The child’s mind – tabula rasa.
O All behaviour is a response to stimuli, in
associative chains.
O Language – a progressive accumulation of
habits and the goal is error-free production.

10.

Behaviourism
O L1 – an obstacle to L2, because of interference errors.
O Contrastive analysis (Lado 1957) – approach to SLA
research
O Central concepts: positive and negative transfer.
O Criticism: Corder (1967) only a small percentage of L2
errors can be traced to the L1 influence.
O L2 learning is verbal habit formation: learners move from
form to meaning.
O Thus certain conditions are needed for SLA:
O Imitation and repetition of the language heard;
O Imitation has to be rewarded;
O As a result of the above, the behaviour is strengthened,
reinforced and finally becomes habitual.

11.

Universal Grammar Theory
O When: the 1960s and 70s
O Who: Chomsky (1975)
Claims:
O Humans possess innate knowledge of language universals
(UG) and pronciples which regulate L acquisition.
O The UGs are modified according to the input received.
O Learners have an internal syllabus to follow which determines
both L1 and L2 acquisition.
O The information inside our mind (innate universal gr system)
affects L2 development (interlanguage development).
O Basis for the claim: learners sometimes make projections
about the language they learn that are beyond the information
they are supposed to know.

12.

Universal Grammar Theory
O The role of the teacher is to present ‘linguistic
data’.
O The learners react to and manipulate the data and
thus develop a mental representation of the new
language.
O The teachers should provide good linguistic input
which interacts with the learner’s internal innate
grammar.
O The question arises: do the learners at different
stages of their lives have the same or different
access to their UG systems?

13.

Monitor Theory
O When: the 1980s
O Who: Krashen
Claims:
O L2 is acquired through exposure to comprehensible input in a
similar way to how they acquired L1.
O Grammar features are acquired in a specific order (order of
acquisition), regardless of their L1.
O During SLA, learners develop 2 systems that are independent
of each other: the acquisition system (unconscious and
implicit) which becomes active when we communicate; and
the learning system (conscious and explicit), which acts as a
monitor and corrector of production.
O Comprehensible input must be slightly above their proficiency
level (i+1) and learning has to take place in a relaxed context.

14.

Monitor Theory
O Implications for language teaching:
O Instructors should provide learners with a rich
variety of comprehensible input and opportunities to
use language spontaneously and meaningfully.
O Input should be supported by gestures, pictures, and
illustration of all kind.
O Grammar instruction does not have any impact on L
acquisition.
O Much of L2 acquisition happens by chance and
naturally when learners focus on meaning.

15.

Interaction Hypothesis
O When: the early 1980s
O Who: Long, Gass
Claims
O Input means the language the learners ‘meet’, and it is an
essential element for learners to make linguistic hypotheses.
Input can be interactional (e.g. 2 speakers) or noninteractional (e.g. announcements).
O Interaction will modify input.
O The meaning is negotiated: initial breakdown of
communication will be repaired by subsequent adjustment.
O Corrective feedback is used to support SLA: directly or
indirectly.
O Output is necessary for the learners to produce to express
meaning.

16.

Interaction Hypothesis
Implications for language teaching:
O A new classroom dynamic – interaction, new
roles.
O Communication should consider L2 linguistic
properties and its application in everyday life.
O Grammar instruction might be beneficial to
help learners to understand the formal
properties of the language so that input would
be enhanced.

17.

Processability Theory
O When: the 1990s
O Who: Pieneman
Claims
O Learner output (speech) processing procedures emerge over
time in a predictable order. They are subconscious and cannot
be skipped.
O SLA can be broken down into stages. L2 learners can only
produce the linguistic forms for which they have acquired the
necessary processing capabilities.
O Learners might display individual variation in the extent to
which they apply developmental rules.

18.

Processability Theory
Implications for language teaching:
O The role of instruction is limited and
influenced by the learner’s readiness to
acquire a particular structure.
O Instruction might be detrimental to acquisition
if the learner’s psycholinguistic readiness is
not considered.

19.

Input Processing Theory
O When: the 1990s
O Who: VanPatten
Claims:
O When learners are exposed to L2 input, only a small
proportion of that input becomes intake because
O
Our capacity to process information is limited;
O We use many processing strategies to cope with the information.
O Learners process input for meaning before they process it for
form.
O Learners analyse sentences relying on word order, employing
a first noun processing strategy, which gives the first noun or
pronoun that they meet subject status. ˃ Delay in syntax
acquisition.

20.

Input Processing Theory
Implications for language teaching:
O Grammar instruction should be aimed at
changing the way input is perceived.
O Grammar input should move from structured
input to structured output.

21.

Skills Acquisition Theory
O When: the beginning of the 21st century
O Who: DeKeyser
Claims:
O SLA happens by exposure to input through L2 learner’s ability to
process information and build networks of associations.
O SLA here means moving from a controlled mode of operation
(declarative knowledge) to automatic mode (procedural
knowledge) through repeated practice.
O The theory applies if 4 conditions are met:
O
adult learners are of high aptitude;
O structures are simple to be learned;
O learners are in early stages of learning;
O context is instructional.

22.

Skills Acquisition Theory
Implications for language teaching:
O Learners need to be taught explicitly.
O Learners need to practice various grammatical
features and skills until they are well
established.

23.

Emergentism
O When: the beginning of the 21st century
O Who: Ellis
Claims:
O SLA is governed by the same type of processes and principles
that govern other aspects of human knowledge.
O SLA is a dynamic process where a number of elements
operate and cause the emergence (appearance) and
development of L2.
O SLA is an implicit process where frequent input plays a key
role. The two other features that are important for language
performance are recency and context.
O Language emerges over time as a result of cognitive learning
mechanisms, interacting with data gathered from the learner’s
environment.

24.

Emergentism
Implications for language teaching:
O Learners must be exposed to real and natural
settings frequently and regularly. The more
knowledge they gain of the L2, the more
interaction they initiate and become involved
in.
O The role of grammar instruction is limited and
not always effective, but it can help learners to
notice L2 forms.

25.

Declarative and Procedural Model
O When: the beginning of the 21st century
O Who: Ullmann
Claims:
O There are two independent but sometimes overlapping memory
systems in the brain: declarative and procedural memory.
O Declarative memory is mostly responsible for the acquisition of
vocabulary and stock phrases.
O Procedural memory is used for implicit learning of grammar.
Implications for language teaching:
O Neither learning nor practicing grammar rules is likely to promote
spontaneous use of those rules.
O Learning words and phrases may lead to spontaneous utterances.

26.

Complexity Theory
O When: beginning of the 21st century
O Who: Larsen-Freeman
Claims
O Dynamic systems evolve from chaos into order.
O SLA is not just processing and internalising data. It is very
important to understand how learners use linguistic
knowledge and how that is influenced by context.
O Interaction with the environment, the context, and the
variability of learning outcomes among L2 learners are key
features of this theory.
O Language components interact with the L2 system through a
meaning-making process.

27.

Complexity Theory
Implications for language teaching:
O Instructors should throw the language system
into initial chaos, out of which will emerge a
system that reflects L2.
O Exposure to input is important, as is social
participation.
O The theory acknowledges the psycholinguistic
perspective.
O It does not explain how the language system
emerges.

28.

Sociocultural Theory
O When: 1985
O Who: Wertsch, Vygotsky, Lantolf, Thorne, Poehner
Claims
O The central concepts of SLA are mediation, zone of proximal
development (ZPD) and verbal thought.
O Mediation: humans have certain cultural tools which they use to
control and interact with their environment.
O ZPD: the level of performance which the learner is capable of
when there is support from negotiation with an expert or an adult
(Vygotsky 1978).
O Verbal thought: SLA includes language function development,
mental function development and the combination of language
and thought. It is a process where the low level external/ social
speech develops into the highest level inner speech or verbal
thought.

29.

Sociocultural Theory
O All learning takes place as people participate in culturally
formed settings. These settings shape the most important
cognitive activities in which people engage. Social interaction
plays a crucial role in cognitive development: social learning
precedes development.
O A knowledgeable participant – can promote the development
of the one with less knowledge.
O Learners use tools to interact with the environment. The tools
the individuals have and their situations are different. The
tools also have their limits.

30.

Sociocultural Theory
Implications for language teaching:
O Instruction is crucial to L2 development in the
classroom.
O Instruction should be geared to the ZPD just
beyond the learner’s development level.
O During instruction, learners develop an awareness
of the structure and function of the language by
using it socially. The environment gives the
context and helps to understand the language’s
grammatical properties.

31.

A Model for SLA
Input
Intake
Interlanguage
System
Output

32.

ReaL World Applications
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The internal and implicit processes responsible for
language acquisition are similar regardless of
learners’ L1.
Learners require extensive exposure to L2 input in
order to build their internal new linguistic systems.
Interaction with other speakers is a key factor in
acquisition.
Acquisition requires learners to make form-function
connections.
Most researchers believe that L2 acquisition is first
and foremost developing implicit knowledge.
Language acquisition requires opportunities for
output practice.

33.

References and Further Reading
Atkinson, D. (ed.) 2011. Alternative Approaches in Second Language
Acquisition. New York: Routledge.
Benati, A. 2013. Issues in Second Language Teaching. Sheffield: Equinox
Publishing.
Benati, A., Angelovska, T. 2016. Second Language Acquisition. A
Theoretical Introduction to Real World Appplications. London: Bloomsbury.
Gass, S.M., and Selinker, L. 2008. Second Language Acquisition: An
Introductory Course. New York: Routledge.
Robinson, P. (ed.) 2012. Routledge Encyclopedia of Second Language
Acquisition. New York: Routledge.
Ortega, L. (ed) 2015. Second Language Acquisition. London: Routledge.
Ortega, L., Cumming, A. , Ellis, N. C. (eds.) 2013. Agendas for Language
Learning Research. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
VanPatten, B., Benati, A. 2015. key Terms in second Language Acquisition.
London: Bloomsbury.
VanPatten, B., Williams, J. (eds) 2015. Theories in second Language
Acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.