Categorization theories

1.

LECTURE 4
CATEGORIZATION THEORIES
1 Types of categorization in linguistics
2 The Prototype theory. Features of the Prototype theory.
3 Differences between classic theory and prototype theory.
4 The Exemplar theory.

2.

Categorization: what is it and how does it work?

3.

Category: Animals
• being living organisms;
• having the ability to
move;
• requiring sustenance
for survival;
• need food;
• need water

4.

Category: Emotions
• Shared characteristics
• Distinct features
• Triggers
• Associated feelings
• Abstract concepts
• Represent different facets
of human emotional
experiences.

5.

Categories are mental constructs that
serve various functions:
• facilitate information storage and retrieval.
• guide perception by highlighting relevant
features.
• aid in communication and language.
• support problem

6.

Types of categorization in linguistics
1. Lexical
Categorization
E.g. parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs,
pronouns, and conjunctions.
2. Semantic
Categorization
For example, words like "dog," "cat," and "horse" can be categorized
under the broader semantic category of "animals."
3. Syntactic
Categorization
E.g. classifying words and phrases based on their syntactic roles,
including subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers, and more.
4. Phonological
Categorization
The classification of speech sounds or phonemes into distinct
categories.
5. Morphological
Categorization
For example, verbs can be categorized into different conjugation
patterns based on tense, aspect, mood, and other grammatical
features.

7.

Types of categorization in linguistics
6. Conceptual
Categorization
E.g.: abstract or concrete concepts based on shared features
and relationships.
7. Frame
Categorization
Frame categorization is based on existing mental
frameworks.
8. Prototype
Categorization
For example, a robin is a prototypical bird, while a penguin is
less prototypical but still belongs to the category of birds.
9. Fuzzy
Categorization
Ambiguity and flexibility in categorization.
10. Cultural and
Linguistic
Variability
Some categories may be culture-specific or languagespecific.

8.

The classical view of categorization
• 1.Clear-Cut Boundaries
• 2. All-or-Nothing Membership
• 3. Logical Reasoning

9.

Example 1: Category
of "Triangles"
• three straight
sides
• the interior
angles must add
up to 180
degrees.

10.

Example 2

11.

Limitations of the classic theory.
Fuzzy Boundaries
Prototype Effect
Family Resemblance
Concept Combination
Context Dependency
Cultural and Linguistic Variability
Category Learning
Neuroscientific Evidence
Boundary Cases

12.

In summary
• the classical view of categorization
posits that categories are sharply
defined by necessary and sufficient
features, leading to clear-cut boundaries
and all-or-nothing membership.

13.

Prototype Theory
• 1. Graded Membership
• Category "bird"
• wings
• feathers
• Beak
• Ability to fly
• Lay eggs

14.

Prototype Theory
• 2. Prototype
• Example:
Category "fruit"
• an apple
• being sweet
• edible
• having seeds

15.

Prototype Theory
• 3. Family
Resemblance
• Example:
category "vehicle"
• modes of
transportation

16.

Prototype Theory
• 4. Fuzzy Boundaries
• Example:
category
"furniture"
• More typical
members /
less typical members

17.

Prototype Theory
• 5. Flexibility
• the category
"chair"

18.

Prototype Theory
• 6. Prototype Effects
• Example: Category
“birds"
• a robin is a bird
(highly prototypical)
• a penguin is a bird
(less prototypical)

19.

Scientists contributed into prototype theory
• 1. Eleanor Rosch:
• - "Cognitive Reference Points" (1975).
• - "Basic Objects in Natural Categories" (1976)
• 2. Carolyn Mervis:
• - "Categorization of Natural Objects" (1976)
• 3. Roger N. Shepard
• - "Multidimensional Scaling: Some Recent Developments" (1974)
• 4. William Labov

20.

Categorizatio
n
Classic theoryVS
Prototype theory
1. Definition of
Categories
necessary and sufficient features or
criteria
categories are organized around
prototypes
2. Category
Boundaries
well-defined and rigid
fuzzy boundaries
3. Family
Resemblan
ce
Objects within a category are
assumed to share common defining
features, and these features are
necessary and sufficient for category
membership
relies on exemplars, which are
specific instances that perfectly fit the
category's defining features
Objects in a category may share
some features with the prototype,
but not necessarily all of them
4. Exemplars
vs.
Prototypes
5. Cognitive
Processing
6. Context
focuses on prototypes, which are
abstract, central representations
of a category
logical reasoning and matching features emphasizes cognitive processes
to
based
predefined criteria
on similarity and similarity judgments
context-independent
context-dependent

21.

22.

The Exemplar theory
• 1. Categorization by Example
• 2. No Single Prototype
• 3. Category Membership Determination
• 4. Fuzzy Boundaries
• 5. Flexible and Context-Dependent

23.

Resources
1.
EvansV., Green M. (2006). Cognitive Linguistics. An Introduction. EDINBURGHUNIVERSITY PRESS.
2.
Болдырев Н.Н. (2014) Введение в когнитивную лингвистику.Тамбов: Изд. Дом ТГУ им. Г.Р.
Державина. 236 с.
3.
Lakoff, George. (1987).Women, fire, and dangerous things. Chicago:The University Chicago Press. 6312
p. https://lecturayescrituraunrn.files.wordpress.com/2017/03/unidad-5-lakoff-women-fire-anddanger.pdf
4.
Geeraerts, D. (2006). Prototype theory. Cognitive linguistics: Basic readings, 34, 141-165. Berlin-New
York , 497 p. https://arkitecturadellenguaje.files.wordpress.com/2013/11/cognitive-linguistics-basicsreadings-dirk-geeraerts.pdf
5.
"The Making of Cognitive Science: Essays in Honor of GeorgeA. Miller" edited by William Hirst (1988).
6.
"Categorization and Naming in Children: Problems of Induction" by Robert J.Thompson (1995).
7.
"Concepts and Categories: Memory, Meaning, and Metaphysics" by Ian Hacking (1999).